写作与修辞contrast-and-comparison的用法与比较.ppt

DevelopmentbyComparisonandContrast,Comparisonandcontrastaretwothinkingprocessesweconstantlyperforminourdailylife.Wemightcompareandcontrasttwocities,twoproducts,twobooks,twoplaysorfilms,etc.althoughcomparisonusuallyindentifiessimilaritiesandcontrastpointsoutdifferences,thetwoarestructurallysimilarandcanbediscussedtogether.Thepurposeofcomparingorcontrastingistounderstandeitherofthetwothingsmoreclearlyand,attimes,tomakejudgmentsaboutthem.,Subject-by-subjectPattern,1.stressiscausedbydailyhavingtocontendwithcrowdsofpeopleandrestrictedspace.2.Travelinrushhourcanbearealheadache.3.Pollutionofvariouskindsistheresultofindustrialization.4.Carsspewtoxicfumesintotheatmosphere.5.Noisebellowsoutfromeveryside.,1.Herethepaceoflifeisgentle.2.Thereistimetoreflectonthebeautyoftheworld.3.Inavillage,lifeisclosertonature.Thechangingseasonscanbeclearlyobserved.4.Therisamplespaceforeveryone,andfreshairtobreathe.,Subject-by-subjectPattern,ForAmericansalongtimemaybeanythingfromfortyyearstofortyminutes,dependingonthecircumstances.ToanAmericanbusinessmanaproposalthatcouldbecompletedwithinfortyyearsmightbetoofarintothefuturetobeconsidered.Amotoristwhogetsinvolvedinatrafficaccidentwouldbeingreattroublewiththepoliceifhewaitedtwenty-fourhourstoreporttheaccident.Anhourwouldbetoolongatimetobelateforabusinessappointmentoradate.Americansaresotime-consciousthatpromptnessisnotonlyavirtue;itisanobligation.,Subject-by-subjectPattern,Butmanyothercultureshavenosuchconceptofalongtime.DuringWWII,alocaltruckdriverarrivedbreathlesslyatmilitarygovernmentheadquartersreportthatamurdererwasrunninglooseinhisvillage.Underquestionhetoldthemthemurderhadoccurredseventeenyearsearlierandthatthemurdererhadremainedunmolestedinthevillageallthetime.InaSouthAmericancity,anAmericanwasaskedtopresentimmediatelyhiscredentialstoalocalofficialandwaskeptwaitingoutsidehisofficeforalmosttwohours.Forsuchpeople,promptnessisnotonlyunreasonablebutalsoirritating.TheyoftenwonderwhyAmericansmakesuchafussaboutit.ToaSouthAsianperson,alongtimemaybe1,000years,orevenforever.,A.Americansconceptof“alongtime”:_.Examples:(1)_(2)_(3)_Attitudestopromptness:_B.Otherculturesconceptsof“alongtime”:_Examples:(1)_(2)_(3)_,Summary,Insubject-by-subjectpattern,wediscussthetwosubjectsseparately,thatistosay,wediscussallofthecharacteristicsofsubdivisionsofthefirstsubjectinthefirsthalfandthenpresentallthecharacteristicsoftheotherinthesecondhalf.Theaspectsexaminedinthetwosubjectsshouldbethesameandinbothparts,weshouldfollowthesamelogicalorderforeachsubject.,Point-by-pointPattern,Lifeinthecityisquitedifferentfromlifeinthesuburbs.Peoplelivinginthecityareconstantlyexposedtothehustleandbustleofurbanlife.However,lifeinthesuburbsisgenerallyquietandcasualthanthatinthecity.Ifcitydwellerswanttoseetreesandgrass,theyhavetogotooneofthepublicparks.Ontheotherhand,thestreetsofmanysuburbancommunitiesarelinedwithtreesandeachhousehasitsowngrassyyard.Apersonlivinginthecityisclosetomanysourcesofentertainment,butasuburbandwellermustgointothecityforentertainment.,Summary,Inpoint-by-pointpattern,thewritercomparesandcontrastsbothsubjectsitemafteritem.Hestructureshisparagrapharoundpointsofcomparisoninsteadofsubjects,movingbackandforthbetweenthesubjects.Thespecificsofbothsubjectsareplacedclosetogetherfordirectandimmediatecomparisonandcontrast,andtransitionsareoftenusedsoastoavoidabruptswitchingbetweenthetwosubjects.Thepoint-by-pointpatternworksbestwithsubjectsthatcontainalotofpoints.Itcanbringintosharpfocusthesimilaritiesanddifferencesforthereadertoseeashereadsalong.,AbriefconsiderationofEgyptianmythologyandthemythologyoftheGreeksisenoughtoconvinceusoftherevolutioninthoughtthatmusthavetakenplacefromoneagetotheother.TheEgyptiangodshadnoresemblancetoanythingintherealworld;theGreekgodswerefashionedafterrealGreekpeople.TheEgyptianartistsinterpretationsofthedivinewerehorridbestialshapesthatcombinedmensheadswithbirdsbodiesorterrifyingnightmares.ThemonstrositiesofaninvisibleworldwerewhattheEgyptiansworshiped.TheGreekinterpretationofdivinityisnotsodarkapicture.,TheGreekswerepreoccupiedwiththevisibleworld.Theyfoundtheirdesiressatisfiedinwhattheycouldactuallyseearoundthem.TheancientstatuesofApollo,forinstance,resemblethestrongyoungbodiesofathletescontendingintheOlympicGames.GenerallytheGreekartistsfoundtheirgodsinidealizedbeautyorintelligenceofactualhumancounterparts.Theyhadnowishtocreatesomehideousfantasythattheycalledgod.,Linkingdevices,AbriefconsiderationofEgyptianmythologyandthemythologyoftheGreeksisenoughtoconvinceusoftherevolutioninthoughtthatmusthavetakenplacefromoneagetotheother.TheEgyptiangodshadnoresemblancetoanythingintherealworld;theGreekgodswerefashionedafterrealGreekpeople.,AbriefconsiderationofEgyptianmythologycontrastedwiththemythologyoftheGreeksisenoughtoconvinceusoftherevolutioninthoughtthatmusthavetakenplacefromoneagetotheother.TheEgyptiangodshadnoresemblancetoanythingintherealworld,whereastheGreekgodswerefashionedafterrealGreekpeople.,Linkingdevices,TheEgyptianartistsinterpretationsofthedivinewerehorridbestialshapesthatcombinedmensheadswithbirdsbodiesorterrifyingnightmares.ThemonstrositiesofaninvisibleworldwerewhattheEgyptiansworshiped.TheGreekinterpretationofdivinityisnotsodarkapicture.,TheEgyptianartistsinterpretationsofthedivinewerehorridbestialshapesthatcombinedmensheadswithbirdsbodiesorterrifyingnightmares.ThemonstrositiesofaninvisibleworldwerewhattheEgyptiansworshiped.TheGreekinterpretationofdivinitystandsinoppositiontothisdarkpicture.,Linkingdevices,TheGreekswerepreoccupiedwiththevisibleworld.Theyfoundtheirdesiressatisfiedinwhattheycouldactuallyseearoundthem.TheancientstatuesofApollo,forinstance,resemblethestrongyoungbodiesofathletescontendingintheOlympicGames.,TheGreekswerepreoccupiedwiththevisibleworld.UnliketheEgyptians,Theyfoundtheirdesiressatisfiedinwhattheycouldactuallyseearoundthem.TheancientstatuesofApollo,forinstance,resemblethestrongyoungbodiesofathletescontendingintheOlympicGames.,Linkingdevices,GenerallytheGreekartistsfoundtheirgodsinidealizedbeautyorintelligenceofactualhumancounterparts.Theyhadnowishtocreatesomehideousfantasythattheycalledgod.,GenerallytheGreekartistsfoundtheirgodsinidealizedbeautyorintelligenceofactualhumancounterparts.IndirectcontrasttotheEgyptians,Theyhadnowishtocreatesomehideousfantasythattheycalledgod.,Summary,Linkingwordsandphrasescanindicatecontrastandclarifytheshiftfromonesidetotheother.Theyplayanimportantroleinensuringasmoothandcoherentflowfromonesubjecttoanother,orfromonepointtoanotherinparagraphs.,DevelopmentbyCauseandEffect,Attheendoftheunityouwill:Beabletorecognizecharacteristicsandorganizationalpatternsofcauseandeffectinparagraphwriting;Beacquaintedwithrelevantlinkingdevicesincauseandeffectwriting;andBeabletowriteeffectiveparagraphsofcauseandeffectaccordingtotheinstructionsgiven,“Causeandeffectisregardedasalogicalpatterncommonlyusedinexplanationandargumentation,especiallywhenweexplorepossibleconnectionsbetweenanaction/eventanditsoutcome,orbetweencausesandresultsofanevent,action.,Sample1,OneofthemaincomplaintsofcityresidentsintheUSisthelackofparking.Thisproblemispartlycausedbyalltheabandonedcarsonthestreets.Ithasbeenestimatedthatoveronemillioncarsareabandonedonthestreetsofthecities.Eachyear,approximatelyathirdofthosecarsareremovedanddestroyed.Therestofthecarswhicharenotremovedtakeupparkingspacesandmakeneighbourhoodlookrun-down.Asurveyshowsthat,eventhoughthecitygovernmentofLosAngelesspendsabout30milliondollarstotowawayanddismantleabandonedvehicles,itisalwaysfightingalosingbattleasmoreandmorecarsareconstantlycomingofftheproducingline.InBoston,ontheotherhand,theproblemhasbeendealtwithbyanon-profitgovernmentalagency,whichusesthemoneyfromtherecyclingofthementalinthecarstopayforthecostoftowingthem.TheprograminBostonsoundsgoodalthoughithasnotcompletelyreachedfinancialindependencefromthefederalgovernmentyet.Untilatrulyself-sufficientprogramforremovingoldcarsisdeveloped,itwillremainaseriousproblem.,Questions,1.Whatisthetopicoftheparagraph?2.Whataretheorganizationalcharacteristicsoftheparagraph?3.Inwhatkindoforderarethecausespresented?,Thisparagraphisdevelopedaroundtheproblemof“thelackofparking”complainedaboutbyUScityresidents.Theparagraphisorganisedonapatternofsingleeffectandmultiplecauses.Aftertheproblemisclearlypresentedatthebeginning,therestoftheparagraphisdevotedtotheexplorationofitscauses.Altogetherthreemajorcausesarediscussed,fromtheobviousfactoftheabandonedcarstakingupparkingspacestotheunderlyingfinancialheadaches.Inthisway,thewritingshowsalogicalcause-and-effectpattern,whichmightconsequentlyattractmoreconcernoreffortsintheproblemssolution.,CausesOveramillioncarsareabandonedonthestreets.Morecarsareconstantlybeingproduced.Bothcitygovernmentsorgovernmentalagencieshavefinancialheadaches.,EffectLackofparkingincities,Summary,ThesampleparagraphpresentstheproblemoflackofparkinginsomeoftheUScitiesbeforeitgoesontoexplorethecausesoftheissue.Thispatternoforganizationissingleeffectvs.multiplecauses.Inthispattern,youmaystatetheissue,i.e.theeffect,rightatthebeginning,andthenguidethereadertotrackdownsomeimportantevidenceforthecauses.Thecausescanbetracedfromthemostthemostsuperficialtothedeepest,Fromthemostdirecttothemostindirect,etc.Intheend,itisadvisabletosuggestsomesolutiontotheproblem,sothatthewholewritinghassomesignificance.,Sample2,SincetheterroristsstrucktheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagon,theAmericanshavebeenwonderinghowtorespondtothefrequentofficialwarningthatterroristsareplanningnewattacksinthenearfuture.Theyfeelanxiousandpanickybecausetheycantcalculatetheoddsincludingthoseofexplosivesorletterswithanthrax.Butitiscriticalthatthepresidentsaidesavoidanytemptationtousesecurityprecautionsasanexcuseforpoliticalerrors,whichwasalreadymadesomewhere.,Thereis,ofcourse,thedangerthattoomanywarningscouldbecomemerebackgroundnoise,andthatsomewheredowntheroadthepublicwouldwindupignoringtheonethatreallymatters.Thepubliccannotjudgeonaday-to-daybasiswhetherthoseassessmentsarebeingmadecorrectly.Butthenationisbetterofffrightenedandinformedthanlefthappilyinthedark.,Questions,Whatproblemisaddressedinthisparagraph?Andinhowmanyaspectsisthecauseoreffectexplored?Doesthisparagraphcomestraighttothepointofcauseoreffectabouttheissue?DoesitfollowthesamepatternasSample1?Ifnot,whatarethedifferences?,1.Theproblemaddressedreferstotheissueofterroristattacks.Thisissuehasbroughtaboutatleastthreemajoraspectsofconsequenceoreffect.Theparagraphaddressesthecauseratherthaneffectsrightatthebeginning.No.itfollowsapatternofsinglecauseandmultipleeffects.UnlikeSample1inwhicheffectisaddressedfirstandcausesaretracedbackwards,Sample2statesbrieflyatthebeginningtheissueofterroristattacksasadirectissue,andthendwellsonthreemajoreffects,somefactualandsomepredicted.,Effect1,Effects2,Effects3,Summary,YoumayhavenoticedthedifferenceinorganizationbetweenSample1andSample2.InSample2thewriterbrieflypresentstheissueofterroristattacksasadirectcause,andthendwellsuponthreemajoreffects,fromthematter-of-facttosomethingpredicted.Thisiscalledthesingle-cause-and-multiple-effectpattern.Asisobserved,thewriterstructureshisparagraphmainlyaroundpointsofeffectsinsteadofcauses,Summary,Reasoningalongthelogicalsequenceofevents.LikeSample1,transitionsarealsousedsoastoavoidabruptideadevelopment.Thesingle-cause-and-multiple-effectpatternworksbestwithissuethatturnouttobefar-reachingorinfluential.Itcanbringintosharpfocustherelationshipbetweencausesandeffectsofanissueunderdiscussion.,Developmentbyclassification,Inlife,wealwaysfindexamplesofclassificationanddivision.Food,drinks,clothes,animals,plants,people,teachers,books,etc.Canallbeclassifiedinvariouswaysforeaseofunderstanding.Inthisunit,wearegoingtostudythefeaturesandorganizationpatternsofclassificationandtheuseofrelevantlinkingdevices.,Sample1,Thetimemoststudentsspendstudyingforatestcanbedividedintothreedistinctphases.PhaseOne,oftencalledthe“Noproblem”phase,runsfromthedaythetestisannouncedtoapproximatelyforty-eighthoursbeforethedreadedexamispassedout.DuringPhaseOne,thestudentiscarefree,smilingandenjoyinglifeasusual.Whenaskedbyclassmatesifhehasstudiedforthetestyet,hisreplywillbeanassured“Noproblem”.DuringPhaseOne,noactualstudyingtakesplace.,PhaseTwoisenteredtwodayspriortothetest.Itissometimesreferredtoasthe“Tomorrow”phase,sincestudentsoftenreplytoquestionswiththestatement,“Illstudytomorrow.”DuringPhaseTwo,again,noactualstudyingtakesplace,butheisconsideringit.PhaseThree,thefinalphase,isenteredtwelvehoursbefore“ZeroHour.”Thisistheactualphase,characterizedbysweatypalms,nervoustwitches(抽筋),andconfusedmentalpattern.PhaseThreeisalsotermedthe“Shock”phasesincethestudentsisshockedtodiscovertheimminentnatureoftheexamandtheamountofmaterialtobestudied.Hewillprobablybeunabletosleepandwillmumblemeaninglessphrases.Thisphasewillnotenduntiltheexamisover.,CompletetheoutlineaccordingtotheorganizationofSample1,Subject:thetimemoststudentsspendstudyingforatestTopicsentence:Thetimemoststudentsspendstudyingforatestcanbedividedintothreedistinctphases.Division1)PhaseOnerunsfromthedaythetestisannouncedtoapproximatelyforty-eighthoursbeforetheexamispassedout.2)Phasetwoisenteredtwodayspriortothetest.3)Phasethree,thefinalphase,isenteredtwelvehoursbefore“ZeroHour.,Sample2,Studentsinourschoolfallintothreegroupsaccordingtotheirdifferentintentionsoftakingpartinsports.Manystudentsgototheplaygroundwhentheyfeeltiredafterafewhoursofstudy.Thesestudentsputmuchmoreemphasisontheirstudyefficiencythanonthefunofsports.Theyjustwanttogobacktotheirclassroomsfromtheplaygroundwithcleareradquickermind.Thustheydontactuallycarewhethertheycanenjoythemselvesonthesportsgroundornot.Studentsthatmakeupthesecondgrouparerealsportslovers.Sometimestheyevenputasidetheirstudyforagame.Theytakepartinthesportthatintereststhemmost,nocaringwhetheritismostbeneficialtotheirhealth.,Sample2,Thethirdgroupwantsbeautyfromsports.Boyswanttobecomestrong;girlswanttobeslimandgraceful.Thosewhoconsidersportstheonlywayofreducingweightalsobelongtothisgroup.Theyareverycarefullychoosingthekindofexercisetheydo,andtheyareafraidthatcertainsportsmayruintheirfigures.Nomatterwhichgrouptheybelongto,theyallbenefitformsports.,Questions,Whatisthetopicsentence?Whatisthesubjectclassified?Howmanygroupshasitbeendividedinto?ArethegroupsarrangedinthesameorderasinSample1?Ifnot,inwhatorderaretheyarranged?,Answers,InSample1groupsarearrangedintimeorder;whileinSample2,groupsarearrangedintheorderofdegree,i.e.fromthelessspecificandstrongintentiontomorespecificandstrongerones.,outline,Topicsentence:studentsinourschoolfallintothreegroupsaccordingtotheirdifferentintentionsoftakingpartinsports.Division:1)studentswhogototheplaygroundwhentheyfeeltiredafterstudy.2)realsportsloverswhoevenputasidetheirstudiesforagame.3)studentswhowantbeautyfromsportsConcludingsentence:Nomatterwhichgrouptheybelongto,theyallbenefitformsports.,Summary,Aparagraphofclassificationusuallyconsistsofatopicsentence,abody,andaconcludingsentence.Thetopicsentencehasaclarsubjectandindicatesthenumberofcategoriesintowhichyouaregoingtoclassifythesubject.Thebodyexplainseachcategoryonebyoneinalogicalorder.Itmaybetheorderoftimesequence,orfromthelessspecifictothemorespecific,orfromthelessimportanttothemoreimportant,andsoon.Theconcludingsentence,thoughitcanbeomittedinsomecases,bringreadersattentionbacktothetopic.,II.Principlestoclassify(bywhichtoclassify)Dependingonyourneedandthepurposeofwriting,youcanclassifyasubjectinseveralwaysbyusingdifferentprinciples.e.g.1.toclassifythefriendsyouhavea)findoutthecategoriesthatcanbeusedtodiscussthesubject.e.g.age:young,middle-aged,oldlengthoffriendship:new,old,lifelongmaritalstatus:unmarried,married,divorcedsocialstatus:averageJoeandJane,mid-levelmanagement,high-rankingofficialsb)thenfindthemostrelevantcategory.,2.todescribeyourprofessors1)findoutthecategoriesthatcanbeusedtodiscussthesubject.(accordingto.)agegender,personality,teachingstyle,ranking,popularity,styleofdressandaccent.b)thenfindthemostrelevantcategoryTowriteabouteffectivenessofteaching,youmaychooseteachingstyle.Towriteaboutthelivingconditions,youmaychoosestyleofdress.,Practice:Lookatthefollowingoutlines,anddeterminewhethertheyareappropriatelyclassified,1.Subject:moviesDivision:actioncomedyromancehorrorComment:notcomplete,More:tragedy,sciencefiction,etc,2.Subject:friendsDivision:newfriendsoldfriendslife-longfriendsfemalefriendsComment:femaleoverlapswithothercatergories,shouldbeexclusive,3.Subject:newspapersDivision:wrappinggarbagemakingpaperplanesreadingeditorialComment:noclearprinciple,thereshouldbeonlyone,(e.g.theuseofnewspapers,notthecontent),4.Subject:collegeclassesDivision:enjoytoleratemorningdislikeComment:noclearprinciple,(dividedaccordingtostudentsattitudestothem;thetimewhentheclassisgiven),Summary,Toachieveeffectivenessinclassification,wemustfollowsomeimportantprinciples:1.selectoneappropriateprincipleasthebasisofeachclassificationaccordingtoyourpurposeofwriting,andsticktoitwithinthewholeparagraph.2.Makesurethatthecategoriesareexclusive.Theyshouldnotoverlap.3.Donotomitanyimportantcategories.Theclassificationshouldbeexclusive.,IV.ExpressionsoftenusedTherearedifferentkindsofpeopleinsocietyAnygoodlibraryshouldcontainthreetypesofmaterials.UniversitiesinChinacanbedividedintotwokindsccordingtotheownership.Busdriversinthiscityfallintothefollowingcategories/types:thefriendly,theindifferent,andthemean,A.theseB.thirdC.FinallyD.beforeE.typesF.ThenG.ThoughH.howeverI.EventhoughJ.If,Departmentstoresusuallyhavethreedifferent(1)_ofsalesmen:themislocated,theeager-beaver(做事积极、勤奋的人),andthedaydreamingone.Themislocatedsalesmanisfrequentlyfoundthreedepartmentsawayfromwhereheshouldbe.(2)_hemightnoticeyouwaitingpatientlyinhisdepartment,itusuallytakeshimatleastfiveminutestowalkbacktohisdepartment.(3)_,uponhisarrival,hetellsyouthatthestoreiscompletelyoutoftheitemthatyouwanted.Theeager-beaversalesman,(4)_,isalwaysreadytosellyouanything.(5)_youmightjustbepassingthroughhisd