语言学教程 第三版 Chapter 2-Speech Sound

中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,Chapter2,SpeechSounds,主讲人史宝辉,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,2.0Briefintroduction2.1Howspeechsoundsaremade?2.1.1Speechorgans2.1.2TheIPA2.2Consonantsandvowels2.2.1Consonants2.2.2Vowels2.2.3ThesoundsofEnglish2.3Fromphoneticstophonology2.3.1Coarticulationandphonetictranscription2.3.2Phonemes2.3.3Allophones2.4Phonologicalprocesses,phonologicalrulesanddistinctivefeatures2.4.1Assimilation2.4.2Epenthesis,ruleorderingandtheElsewhereCondition2.4.3Distinctivefeatures2.5Suprasegmentals2.5.1Thesyllablestructure2.5.2Stress2.5.3Intonation2.5.4Tone,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,Ashumanbeingswearecapableofmakingallkindsofsounds,butonlysomeofthesesoundshavebecomeunitsinthelanguagesystem.Wecananalyzespeechsoundsfromvariousperspectivesandthetwomajorareasofstudyarephoneticsandphonology.Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,Naturally,thestudyofsoundsisdividedintothreemainareas,eachdealingwithonepartoftheprocess:ArticulatoryPhoneticsisthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.AcousticPhoneticsisthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds.PerceptualorAuditoryPhoneticsisconcernedwiththeperceptionofspeechsounds.Phonologyisthestudyofthesoundpatternsandsoundsystemsoflanguages.Itaimstodiscovertheprinciplesthatgovernthewaysoundsareorganizedinlanguages,andtoexplainthevariationsthatoccur.Inphonologywenormallybeginbyanalyzinganindividuallanguage,sayEnglish,inordertodetermineitsphonologicalstructure,i.e.whichsoundunitsareusedandhowtheyareputtogether.Thenwecomparethepropertiesofsoundsystemsindifferentlanguagesinordertomakehypothesesabouttherulesthatunderlietheuseofsoundsinthem,andultimatelyweaimtodiscovertherulesthatunderliethesoundpatternsofalllanguages.,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,1.Whatisacousticphonetics?人大2003研【答案】Acousticphoneticsisatechnicalareaoflinguistics.Itisthestudyofsoundwavesmadebythehumanvocalorgansforcommunication.2.Auditoryphoneticsstudieshowsoundsareperceivedbythespeaker.清华2001研【答案】F,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,2.1.1Speechorgans,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,Positionofthevocalfolds:voiceless,Positionofthevocalfolds:voicing(initialsyllabiclanguageinwhichwordsorconceptsarerepresentedbysyllable,withJapanesesyllabicsystemasanexample;phonographiclanguagewhichusesspecialalphabeticorothertypographicalcharacterstoexpressthesoundsofanactualspokenutteranceinwriting,withmanyEuropeanlanguagesasexamples.Englishusesalphabeticscripttorepresentcertainsingletypesound.Forexample,thesoundwhichiswrittenasshinEnglishcanbeexpressedbysymbol,asinship;andthesoundthatiswrittenasccanbeexpressedbythesymbolofk,asincup.,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,四、选择题Ofthethreecavities,isthemostvariableandactiveinamplifyingandmodifyingspeechsounds.北京第二外国语学院2004研A.nasalcavityB.pharynxcavityC.oralcavity【答案】C五、判断正误1.Whenthevocalfoldsareapart,theaircanpassthrougheasilyandthesoundproducedissaidtobevoiced.大连外国语学院2008研【答案】F2.Ofthethreecavities,pharynxcavityisthemostvariableandactiveinamplifyingandmodifyingspeechsounds.北京第二外国语学院2007研【答案】F,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,2.2.1ConsonantsIntheproductionofconsonantsatleasttwoarticulatorsareinvolved.E.g.theinitialsoundinbadinvolvesbothlipsanditsfinalsegmentinvolvestheblade(orthetip)ofthetongueandthealveolarridge.Thecategoriesofconsonant,therefore,areestablishedonthebasisofseveralfactors.Themostimportantofthesefactorsare:(a)theactualrelationshipbetweenthearticulatorsandthusthewayinwhichtheairpassesthroughcertainpartsofthevocaltract,and(b)whereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionofair.TheformerisknownastheMannerofArticulationandthelatterasthePlaceofArticulation.Themannerofarticulationreferstowaysinwhicharticulationcanbeaccomplished:thearticulatorsmaycloseofftheoraltractforaninstantorarelativelylongperiod;theymaynarrowthespaceconsiderably;ortheymaysimplymodifytheshapeofthetractbyapproachingeachother.,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,Stop(orPlosive)Oralthepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back);thelengthortensenessofthevowel(tensevs.laxorlongvs.short),andlip-rounding(roundedvs.unrounded).WecannowdescribetheEnglishvowelsinthisway:i:highfronttenseunroundedvowelhighbacklaxroundedvowelmidcentrallaxunroundedvowellowbacklaxroundedvowel,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,一、术语解释1.Cardinalvowel四川大学2006研，大连外国语学院2008研【答案】Thecardinalvowelsareasetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedandunchanging,intendedtoprovideaframeofreferenceforthedescriptionoftheactualvowelsofexistinglanguages.2.GlottalStop四川大学2006研【答案】Vocaltractiscomposedoforalcavity,nasalcavityandpharynx.Whenthevocalfoldsaretotallyclosed,noaircanpassbetweenthem.Theresultofthisgestureistheglottalstop.3.Bilabialconsonant四川大学2007研【答案】Bilabialconsonantsrefertoconsonantswhicharemadewiththetwolips.4.Voiceless西安交通大学2008研【答案】Whenthevocalfoldsareapart,theaircanpassthrougheasilyandthesoundproducedissaidtobevoiceless.Forexample,consonantsp,s,tareproducedthisway,sotheyarevoicelessconsonants.“Voiceless”isdefinedincontrastwith“voiced”.Consonantsb,z,darevoicedconsonants.,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,二、简答题1.MentionalabiodentalsoundinEnglish.Tellwhatspeechorgansareinvolvedinproducinglabiodentalsounds.(4points)北京第二外国语学院2007研【答案】/f/(or/v/),theupperfrontteethandthelowerlipareinvolved.2.Whatarethedifferencesbetweenvoicedsoundsandvoicelesssoundsintermsofarticulation?南开大学2004研【答案】Whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairfromthelungspassesbetweenthemunimpeded.Soundsproducedinthiswayaredescribedasvoiceless.Consonantsp,s,tareproducedinthisway.Whenthevocalcordsaredrawntogether,theairfromthelungsrepeatedlypushthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatingavibrationeffect.Soundsproducedinthiswayaredescribedasvoiced.b,z,darevoicedconsonants.,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,三、选择题1.Oftheconsonants/p/,/t/,/k/,/f/,/m/,/z/and/g/,whichhasthefeaturesofvoicelessandvelar?对外经济贸易大学2005研A./k/B./p/C./g/D./t/【答案】A2.Thevowelisalowbackvowel.西安外国语学院2006研a./i:/b./u/c./d./a:/【答案】d3.Pointoutwhichitemdoesnotfallunderthesamecategoryastherest,andexplainthereasoninONEsentence.南京大学2008研A./f/B./z/C./v/D./k/Focusonmannerofarticulation【答案】D(Reason:A,BandCarefricatives,butDisaplosive.),中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,五、填空题1.Consonantarticulationsarerelativelyeasytofeel,andasaresultaremostconvenientlydescribedintermsofplaceandofarticulation.北京第二外国语学院2008研【答案】manner2.areproducedbyconstrictingorobstructingthevocaltractatsomeplacetodivert,impede,orcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.中山大学2006研【答案】consonants六、判断正误1.Bilabialconsonantisproducedwhentheobstructionispartialandtheairisforcedthroughanarrowpassage.对外经济贸易大学2006研【答案】F2.Thesoundsegmentsaregroupedintoconsonantsandvowels.大连外国语学院2008研【答案】T,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,七、音标题Workoutthedistinctivefeaturesofthefollowingsounds.(10%)南开大学2007研1.th_2.w_3.v_4._5.l_【答案】1.thaspiratedvoicelessalveolarstop2.wvoicedbilabialapproximant3.vvoicedlabio-dentalfricative4.voiceddentalfricative5.lvoicedalveolarlateral,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,Speechisacontinuousprocess,sothevocalorgansdonotmovefromonesoundsegmenttothenextinaseriesofseparatesteps.Rather,soundscontinuallyshowtheinfluenceoftheirneighbors.E.g.map,lamb.2.3.1CoarticulationandPhoneticTranscriptionWhensuchsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationsareinvolved,wecalltheprocesscoarticulation.Ifthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,asinthecaseoflamb,itisknownasanticipatorycoarticulation.Ifthesoundshowstheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound,itisperseverativecoarticulation,asisthecaseofmap.,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,Thefactthatthevowelinlambhassomequalityofthefollowingnasalisaphenomenonwecallnasalization.Toindicatethatavowelhasbeennasalized,weaddadiacritictothetopofthesymbol,as.pisaspiratedinpeakandunaspiratedinspeak.Thisaspiratedvoicelessbilabialstopisthusindicatedbythediacritich,asph,whereastheunaspiratedcounterpartistranscribedasp.Whenweuseasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscription,itiscalledabroadtranscription.Theuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasanarrowtranscription.Botharephonetictranscriptionssoweputbothformsinsquarebrackets.,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,BroadandnarrowtranscriptionsofEnglishwords,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,2.3.2PhonemesPhonologyisnotspecificallyconcernedwiththephysicalpropertiesofthespeechproductionsystem.Phoneticiansareconcernedwithhowsoundsdifferinthewaytheyarepronouncedwhilephonologistsareinterestedinthepatterningofsuchsoundsandtherulesthatunderliesuchvariations.Crystal:“Phonologicalanalysisreliesontheprinciplethatcertainsoundscausechangesinthemeaningofawordorphrase,whereasothersoundsdonot.”Minimalpairstest:canbeusedtofindoutwhichsoundsubstitutionscausedifferencesofmeaning.Phonemes,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,SomeoftheminimalpairsforEnglishvowelphonemes,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,Thewordphonemesimplyreferstoaunitofexplicitsoundcontrast:theexistenceofaminimalpairautomaticallygrantsphonemicstatustothesoundsresponsibleforthecontrasts.Byselectingonetypeofsoundinsteadofanotherwecandistinguishonewordfromanother.Languagesdifferintheselectionofcontrastivesounds.InEnglish,thedistinctionbetweenaspiratedphandunaspiratedpisnotphonemic.InChinese,however,thedistinctionbetween/p/and/ph/isphonemic.Byconvention,phonemictranscriptionsareplacedbetweenslantlines(/)whilephonetictranscriptionsareplacedbetweensquarebrackets().Inphoneticterms,phonemictranscriptionsrepresentthebroadtranscriptions.,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,2.3.3Allophonesp,pharetwodifferentphonesandarevariantsofthephoneme/p/.Suchvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophonesofthesamephoneme.Inthiscasetheallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistributionbecausetheyneveroccurinthesamecontext:poccursafterswhilephoccursinotherplaces./p/p/s_phelsewhereThisphenomenonofvariationinthepronunciationofphonemesindifferentpositionsiscalledallophonyorallophonicvariation.Velarization:“clearl”and“darkl”/l/l/_V/V_Thinkabouttellandtelling!Phoneticsimilarity:theallophonesofaphonememustbearsomephoneticresemblance.FreevariantsandfreevariationFreevariants:pincuppronouncedintwodifferentways:kpandkpThedifferencemaybecausedbydialectorpersonalhabit,insteadofbyanydistributionrule.SuchaphenomenoniscalledFREEVARIATION.,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,一、术语解释1.Phoneme人大2006研，浙江大学2005研，上海交通大学2007研【答案】Phonemereferstotheabstractelementofsound,identifiedasbeingdistinctiveinaparticularlanguage.Forexample,inEnglish,/p/isdescribedasaphoneme.2.Minimalpairs武汉大学2005研，浙江大学2004研，四川大学2007研，上海交通大学2006研，北京航空航天大学2008研，北京第二外国语学院2006研【答案】Twowordswhichareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentthatoccursinthesameplaceinthestring.Forexample,theEnglishwordsbearandpearconstituteaminimalpairastheydifferinmeaningandintheirinitialphonemes/b/and/p/.3.Freevariation武汉大学2004研【答案】Freevariationistheinterchangeablerelationshipbetweentwophones,inwhichthephonesmaysubstituteforoneanotherinthesameenvironmentwithoutcausingachangeinmeaning.Forexample,thefinalconsonantofcupmaynotbereleasedbysomespeakerssothereisnoaudiblesoundattheendofthisword.Inthiscase,itisthesamewordpronouncedintwodifferentways:khphandkhp.(Thediacritic“”indicates“noaudiblerelease”inIPAsymbols.)4.Allophone四川大学2008研，北京交通大学2007研【答案】Allophonereferstovariantsofthesamephoneme,whichareincomplementarydistributionandbearphoneticsimilarity.,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,5.Coarticulation武汉大学2008研，四川大学2006研，南开大学2007研【答案】Coarticulationreferstothephenomenonthatsoundscontinuallyshowtheinfluenceoftheirneighbors.Forexample,inlamb,whenaisfollowedbym,thevelumwillbegintoloweritselfduringthearticulationofasothatitisreadyforthefollowingnasal.Whensuchsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationsareinvolved,wecalltheprocesscoarticulation.Ifthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,itisknownasanticipatorycoarticulation.Ifthesounddisplaystheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound,itisperseverativecoarticulation.6.Broadandnarrowtranscription中山大学2006研【答案】Whenweuseasimplesetofsymbolsinourtranscription,itiscalledaBROADTRANSCRIPTION.AndtheuseofmorespecificsymbolstoshowmorephoneticdetailisreferredtoasaNARROWTRANSCRIPTION.Botharephonetictranscriptionssoweputbothformsinsquarebrackets.7.Complementarydistribution武汉大学2008研，南开大学2007研【答案】Whentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment,theyareincomplementarydistribution.Forexample,theaspiratedEnglishstopsneveroccurafters,andtheunaspiratedonesneveroccurinitially.Allophonesofthesamephonemeareusuallyincomplementarydistribution.Theallophonesof/p/,forinstance,arealsoincomplementarydistribution.Theunaspiratedpoccursafter/s/,whiletheaspiratedphoccursinallotherenvironmentsexceptafter/s/.,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,二、论述题Whatarephonemes,phonesandallophones?ExplaintheirrelationshipwithexamplesfromEnglishorChinese.(15points)北外2005研【答案】Aphonemeisaminimallydistinctivesetofsoundsinalanguagethatcansignaladifferenceinmeaning.Itisanabstractphonologicalunitrepresentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinaparticularphoneticcontext.Aphoneisanindividualphoneticunitorsegmentthatoccursinspeech.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Eachofthesetofphoneswhichcorrespondtoasinglephonemeofalanguageiscalledanallophone.Phonemesareplacedbetweenslantlines(/)andphonesareplacedbetweensquarebrackets().Allophonesofthesamephonemegenerallyoccurindifferentcontextsandneverdistinguishonewordfromanother.Forexample,whenwepronouncethetwowordspeakandspeak,weareawarethatthesoundpispronounceddifferently,inthewordpeak,itispronouncedwithastrongpuffofairstream;butthesamestopsoundispronouncedslightlydifferentlyinthewordspeak,wherethepuffofairiswithheldalittle.Thepsoundinpeakiscalledanaspiratedphandthepsoundinspeakisanunaspiratedp.Thereisaslightdifferenceinthewaytheyarepronounced,butsuchadifferencedoesnotgiverisetodifferenceinmeaning.So/p/isaphonemeintheEnglishsoundsystem,anditcanberealizeddifferentlyasaspiratedorunaspiratedindifferentcontexts.Thephoneme/p/inEnglishcanberealizedasaspiratedphandunaspiratedp,whichareallophonesofthephoneme/p/.,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,三、选择题1.Whichofthefollowingistrueofanallophone?对外经济贸易大学2005研A.AphonecanbetheallophoneofallEnglishvowelphonemes.B.Therearenorestrictionsonthedistributionofanallophone.C.Thereisnopossibilityofanallophonebecomingaphoneme.D.Anallophonechangesthemeaningoftheword.【答案】C2.WhichofthefollowingCANNOTbeconsideredasminimalpair?大连外国语学院2008研A./ai/-/i/B./p/-/b/C./s/-/【答案】C3.Pointoutwhichitemdoesnotfallunderthesamecategoryastherest,andexplainthereasoninONEsentence.南京大学2007研A.resolutionB.residentC.restartD.resignationFocusonthepronunciationof“s”【答案】C(Reason:inA,B,D,“s”areallpronouncedasz,whileinC“s”ispronouncedass.),中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,四、填空题transcriptionshouldtranscribeallthepossiblespeechsounds,includingtheminuteshades.北京第二外国语学院2004研【答案】narrow五、判断正误1.Aphonemeinonelanguageoronedialectmaybeanallophoneinanotherlanguageordialect.清华2000研，清华2001研【答案】T2.BroadTranscriptionisintendedtosymbolizeallthepossiblespeechsounds,includingtheminuteshades.北京第二外国语学院2003研【答案】F3.Phoneticsimilaritymeansthattheallophonesofaphonememustbearsomemorphologicalresemblance.大连外国语学院2008研【答案】F补充：此题型还常考freevariation和complementarydistribution，phone和phoneme的区别。,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,2.4.1Assimilation,Nasalization,dentalization,andvelarizationareallinstancesofassimilation,aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.Ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound,wecallitregressiveassimilation.E.g.Theconverseprocess,inwhichaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound,isknownasprogressiveassimilation.,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,EnglishFricativeDevoicing,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,devoicing:aprocessbywhichvoicedsoundsbecomevoiceless.Insuchcontextsitdoesnotoccurwithothersounds,suchasstopsandvowels.phonologicalprocesses:aTARGEToraffectedsegmentundergoesastructuralchangeincertainenvironmentsorcontexts.Anyphonologicalprocessmusthavethreeaspectstoit:(a)asetofsoundstoundergotheprocess;(b)asetofsoundsproducedbytheprocess;(c)asetofsituationsinwhichtheprocessapplies./v/f/z/setc.voicedfricativevoiceless/voicelessThisisaphonologicalrule.Theslash(/)specifiestheenvironmentinwhichthechangetakesplace.Thebar(calledthefocusbar)indicatesthepositionofthetargetsegment.Nasalizationrule:-nasal+nasal/+nasalDentalizationrule:-dentaldental/dentalVelarizationrule:-velar+velar/+velar,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,2.4.2Epenthesis,ruleorderingandtheElsewhereConditionAninterestingcaseistheindefinitearticlea/aninEnglish.Considerthefollowing:ahotel,aboy,ause,awagon,abigman,ayellowrug,awhitehouseanapple,anhonor,anorangecurtain,anoldladyEpenthesis(Insertion)Rule:PluralsinEnglish,e.g.,Weseethatthepluralsuffix,-(e)sinwrittenform,ispronouncedinthreedifferentways:s,z,andz.,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,Moreexamplesofpluralforms,Sortingthemaccordingtothepluralvariants,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,a.Thesappearsaftervoicelesssounds.b.Thezappearsaftervoicedsounds.c.Thezappearsaftersibilants./z/s/voice,C(Devoicing)/+sibilantz(Epenthesis)RuleorderingTheElsewhereConditionThemorespecificruleappliesfirst.,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,2.4.3DistinctivefeaturesTheideaofDistinctiveFeatureswasfirstdevelopedbyRomanJacobson(1896-1982)inthe1940sasameansofworkingoutasetofphonologicalcontrastsoroppositionstocaptureparticularaspectsoflanguagesounds.Sincethenseveralversionshavebeensuggested.Someofthemajordistinctionsincludeconsonantal,sonorant,nasalandvoiced.Thefeatureconsonantalcandistinguishbetweenconsonantsandvowels,soallconsonantsare+consonantalandallvowelsconsonantal.sonorantdistinguishesbetweenwhatwecallobstruents(stops,fricativesandaffricates)andsonorants(allotherconsonantsandvowels),withobstruentsbeingsonorantandothers+sonorant.nasalandvoicedofcoursedistinguishnasal(includingnasalized)soundsandvoicedsoundsrespectively.Theseareknownasbinaryfeaturesbecausewecangroupthemintotwocategories:onewiththisfeatureandtheotherwithout.Binaryfeatureshavetwovaluesorspecificationsdenotedby“+”and“sovoicedobstruentsaremarked+voicedandvoicelessobstruentsaremarkedvoiced.,中华英语学习网官方总站：圣才学习网,Theplacefeaturesarenotbinaryfeatures,theyaredividedupintofourvalues:PLACE:LabialPLACE:CoronalPLACE:DorsalPL