Unit-1-Language-and-Language-Learning.ppt

UnitOne,1.ObjectivesofUnitoneInthisunit,thestudentsarerequiredtomastersomefundamentalconceptsandtheoriesoflanguagelearningandteaching.GettoknowwhatkindofcourseELTis;understandthemainpurposesoflearningthiscourse;beawareofthemaincontentsofthiscourse.,I.Warming-upQuestions:1.WhatkindofcourseisELTMethodology?,a.Whatisteaching?Teachingisacomplexprocesswhichcanbeconceptualizedinanumberofdifferentways.Traditionally,languageteachinghasbeendescribedintermsofwhatteachersdo:thatis,intermsoftheactionsandbehaviorswhichteacherscarryoutintheclassroomandtheeffectsoftheseonlearners.Teachingisapersonalactivity,anditisnotsurprisingthatindividualteachersbringtoteachingverydifferentbeliefsandassumptionsaboutwhatconstituteseffectiveteaching.,b.Methodology-method+-(o)logy(formingthenameofabranchofscience)方法论,c.WhatkindofcourseisELTMethodology?ELTMethodologyisatypicallymultidisciplinary(多种不同学科的综合训练方式的)coursewhichiscloselylinkedtosuchkindsofdisciplinaryasphilosophy,pedagogy,psychology,linguistics,sociologyandanthropology(人类学),etc.,LinguisticssociolinguisticsappliedlinguisticspsycholinguisticssociologytheoryandpracticeofELTpsychologypedagogy,2.Whatarethepurposesoflearningthiscourse?,a.Toprovidelearnerswithsomecurrentbutbasictheoriesrelatedtolanguage,languagelearningandlanguageteaching.b.Tohelplearnersdeveloppracticalskillsandtechniquesinteachingthelanguage.c.Toraiselearnersawarenessandpreparethemfordealingwithpracticalissuesinteachingpractice.d.Todeveloplearnersreflectiveandcooperativelearningstrategiesfortheirfutureprofessionaldevelopment.e.TohelplearnersdeveloptheirownideasaboutELTandtheawarenessofputtingtheseideasintheirownteachingpracticeinthefuture.,3.Whatdoyouexpecttolearnorwhatdoyouwanttolearnfromthiscourse?(Seethecontentsofthetextbook),II.SomeReferencebooks:,Brown,H.D.(1994a).PrinciplesofLanguageLearningandTeaching.NewYork:PrenticeHall.Brown,H.D.(1994b).TeachingbyPrinciples,anInteractiveApproachtoLanguagePedagogy.NewYork:PrenticeHall.Harmer,J.(1983).ThePracticeofEnglishLanguageTeaching.Longman.Harmer,J.HowtoTeachEnglish.北京：外语教学与研究出版社,2000.,Howatt,A.P.R.AHistoryofEnglishLanguageTeaching.上海：上海外语教育出版社,1999.Johnson,K.AnIntroductiontoForeignLanguageLearningandTeaching.北京：外语教学与研究出版社,2002.Nunan,D.(1991).LanguageTeachingMethodologyATextbookforTeacher.NewYork:PrenticeHall.Richards,J.learningthroughusingLanguageisthereflectionofcultures:instructiononculturesandfocusonappropriatenessofspeechLanguageisthereflectionofhumanthoughtprocess:learningisthethought-provokingprocess;toimprovecognitionoflearners.Languageisperformance:applicationofauthenticmaterials;learninglanguageasitisusedLanguageisfullofvarieties:instructionofdialects,register,gender,discoursetoimprovetheappropriatenessoflanguageuse.,Theoriesoflanguage,Atleastthreetheoreticalviewsoflanguageandthenatureoflanguageproficiencyexplicitlyorimplicitlyinformcurrentapproachesandmethodsinlanguageteaching.Thefirst,andthemosttraditionalofthethree,isthestructuralview,theviewthatlanguageisasystemofstructurallyrelatedelementsforthecodingofmeaning.Thetargetoflanguagelearningisseentobethemasteryofelementsofthissystem,whicharegenerallydefinedintermsofphonologicalunits(e.g.,phonemes),grammaticalunits(e.g.,clauses,phrases,sentences),grammaticaloperations(e.g.,adding,shifting,joining,ortransformingelements),andlexicalitems(e.g.,functionwordsandstructurewords).Thestructuralviewoflanguageseeslanguageasalinguisticsystemmadeupofvarioussubsystems.,Methodsbasedonthisview,theAudio-lingualmethodTotalPhysicalResponsetheOralApproachSituationalLanguageTeaching,Thesecondviewoflanguageisthefunctionalview,theviewthatlanguageisavehiclefortheexpressionoffunctionalmeaning.Thecommunicativemovementinlanguageteachingsubscribestothisviewoflanguage.Thistheoryemphasizesthesemanticandcommunicativedimensionratherthanmerelythegrammaticalcharacteristicsoflanguage,andleadstoaspecificationandorganizationoflanguageteachingcontentbycategoriesofmeaningandfunctionratherthanbyelementsofstructureandgrammar.Thefunctionalviewnotonlyseeslanguageasalinguisticsystembutalsoameansfordoingthings.TheEnglishforSpecificPurposes(ESP)movementbeginsnotfromastructuraltheoryoflanguagebutfromafunctionalaccountoflearnerneeds(Robinson1980),Thethirdviewoflanguagecanbecalledtheinteractionalview.Itseeslanguageasavehiclefortherealizationofinterpersonalrelationsandfortheperformanceofsocialtransactionsbetweenindividuals.Languageisseenasatoolforthecreationandmaintenanceofsocialrelations.Areasofinquirybeingdrawnoninthedevelopmentofinteractionalapproachestolanguageteachingincludeinteractionanalysis,conversationanalysis.Interactionaltheoriesfocusonthepatternsofmoves,acts,negotiation,andinteractionfoundinconversationalexchanges.Languageteachingcontent,accordingtothisview,maybespecifiedandorganizedbypatternsofexchangeandinteractionormaybeleftunspecified,tobeshapedbytheinclinationsoflearnersasinteractors.Interactionhasbeencentraltothetheoriesofsecondlanguagelearningandpedagogysincethe1980s.Task-BasedLanguageTeachingdrawsonaninteractionalviewoflanguage,astosomeextentdoWholeLanguage,NeurolinguisticProgramming,CooperativeLanguageLearningandContent-BasedInstruction,Viewsonlanguagelearning,1)Behaviorism-behavioristtheory-learningashabitformationThistheorywasinitiatedbybehavioristpsychologistSkinner,whoappliedWatsonandRaynorstheoryofconditioningtothewayhumanacquirelanguage.Thekeypointofthetheoryofconditioningisthat“youcantrainananimaltodoanything(withinreason)ifyoufollowacertainprocedurewhichhasthreemajorstages,stimulus,responseandreinforcement”(Harmer,1983:30)Basedonthetheoryofconditioning,Skinnersuggestedlanguageisalsoaformofbehavior.Itcanbelearnedinthesamewayasananimalistrainedtorespondtostimuli.Thisisreferredtoasbehaviorism.Accordingtothistheory,learningisamechanicalprocessofhabitformationandproceedsbymeansoffrequentreinforcementofastimulus-responsesequence.Oneinfluentialresultistheaudio-lingualmethod,whichinvolvesendless“listenandrepeat”drillingactivities.,2)Mentalism-thinkingasrule-governedactivity,“Ifalllanguageisalearnedbehavior,howcanachildproduceasentencethathasneverbeensaidbyothersbefore?”AccordingtoNoamChomsky,languageisnotaformofbehavior,ratheritisanintricaterule-basedsystemandalargepartoflanguageacquisitionisthelearningofthissystem.Hearguesthatthinkingisrule-governed.Itisafinite,andfairlysmallsetsofrulesthatenablethemindtodealwiththepotentiallyinfiniterangeofexperiencesitmayencounter.Learningconsistsnotofforminghabitsbutofacquiringrules,aprocessinwhichindividualexperiencesaretestedandmodifiedbysubsequentexperience.Thismentalistviewofthemindnaturallyledtothenextimportantstage-thecognitivetheoryoflearning.,3)cognitivetheory:learningasthinkingbeings,Accordingtothecognitivetheory,learningisaprocessinwhichthelearneractivelytriestomakesenseofdata.Thistheorytreatsthelearnersasthinkingbeingsandputsthemfirmlyatthecenterofthelearningprocess,bystressingthatlearningwillonlytakeplacewhenthemattertobelearntismeaningfultothelearners.Sothebasictechniqueassociatedwithacognitivetheoryoflanguagelearningistheproblem-solvingtask.Cognitivetheoryseekstoexplain3mainaspectsoflearningHowknowledgeisestablishedHowknowledgebecomesautomaticHownewknowledgeisintegratedintothelearnerexistingcognitivesystem,Accordingtothecognitivetheory,learnerstypicallyprogressfromdeclarativeknowledge(knowthat)toproceduralknowledge(knowhow).Errorsofstudentsresultnotfromlackofdeclarativeknowledgebutfromproceduralknowledge.Sothesolutiontothisproblemistoprovideconditionsoflearningthatenablesthemtopracticeusingtheirknowledgeinauthenticcommunicativesituations.,Thetermcognitivismisoftenusedlooselytodescribemethodsinwhichstudentsareaskedtothinkratherthansimplyrepeat.ItseemstobelargelytheresultofNoamChomskysreactiontoSkinnersbehavioristtheory,whichledtotherevivalofstructurallinguistics.AccordingtoChomsky,languageisnotaformofbehaviour,itisanintricaterule-basedsystemandalargepartoflanguageacquisitionisthelearningofthissystem.Thereareafinitenumberofgrammaticalrulesinthesystemandwithknowledgeoftheserulesaninfiniteofsentencescanbeproduced.Alanguagelearneracquireslanguagecompetence,whichenableshimtoproducelanguage.,4)EmotionaltheoryLearning,particularlythelearningoflanguageisanemotionalexperience.Feelingsthatthelearningprocessevokeswillhaveacrucialbearingonthesuccessorfailureofthelearning.Theemotionalreactiontothelearningexperienceistheessentialfoundationfortheinitiationofthecognitiveprocess.,5)Constructivisttheory,Theconstructivisttheorybelievesthatlearningisaprocessinwhichthelearnerconstructsmeaningbasedonhisherownexperiencesandwhatheshealreadyknows.Itisbelievedthateducationisusedtodevelopthemind,notjusttoroterecallwhatislearned.JohnDeweyprovidedafoundationforconstructivism.Accordingtohim,teachersneedtodesignenvironmentsandinteractwithlearnerstofosterinventive,creative,criticallearners.Therefore,teachersmustbalanceanunderstandingofthehabits,characteristicsaswellaspersonalitiesofindividuallearnerswithanunderstandingofthemeansofarousinglearnersinterestsandcuriosityforlearning.,6)socio-constructivisttheory,Socio-constructivisttheoryrepresentedbyVygotskyemphasisesinteractionandengagementwiththetargetlanguageinasocialcontextbasedontheconceptof“ZoneofProximalDevelopment”(ZPD)andscaffolding.Inotherwords,learningisbestachievedthroughthedynamicinteractionbetweentheteacherandthelearnerandbetweenlearners.,Vygotsky(1978)emphasizesinteractionandengagementwiththetargetlanguageinasocialcontextbasedontheconceptof“ZoneofProximalDevelopment”(ZPD)andscaffolding.Thatistosay,learningisbestachievedthroughthedynamicinteractionbetweentheteacherandthelearnerandbetweenlearners.Withtheteachersscaffoldingthroughquestionsandexplanations,orwithamorecapablepeerssupport,thelearnercanmovetoahigherlevelofunderstandingandextendhis/herskillsandknowledgetothefullestpotential.,VogotskystheoryofZPD(最近发展区域）,VogotskyproposedtheconceptofZPDtoexplainthedifferencesbetweenanindividualsactualandpotentiallevelsofdevelopment.Theskillsthattheindividualhasalreadymasteredconstitutetheactuallevel.Theskillsthattheindividualcanperformwhenassistedbyanotherperson(orsomeothermeansofmediation)constitutethepotentiallevel.ThezonebetweenthesetwolevelsiscalledZPD.,Inotherwords,ZPDisthesite(zone)wherefuturedevelopment(learning)isnegotiatedbytheexpertandthenoviceandwhereassistanceisoffered,appropriated,refusedandwithheld(scaffoldingscaffoldedhelp).Tasksaredesignedinsuchawaythattheycanbeperformedbythenovicewiththehelpfromexpertandcannotbeperformedwithoutthehelp.Itisbelieveditisthroughperformingthistypeoftasksthatlearningtakesplace.,Abriefhistoryoflanguageteaching,Themostactiveperiodinthehistoryofapproachesandmethodswasfromthe1950stothe1980s.The1950sand1960ssawtheemergenceoftheAudiolingualMethodandSituationalMethod,whichwerebothsupersededbytheCommunicativeApproach.Duringthesameperiod,othermethodsattractedsmallerbutequallyenthusiasticfollowers,includingtheSilentWay,theNaturalApproach,andTotalPhysicalResponse.Inthe1990s,Content-BasedInstructionandTask-BasedLanguageTeachingemergedasnewapproachestolanguageteachingasdidmovementssuchasCompetency-BasedInstructionthatfocusontheoutcomesoflearningratherthanmethodsofteaching.Otherapproaches,suchasCooperativeLearning,WholeLanguageApproachandMultipleIntelligences,originallydevelopedingeneraleducation,havebeenextendedtosecondlanguagesettings.,Characteristicsoflearning,Learningisgoal-orientedLearningisneedsmotivatedLearningisstrategicLearningisbothexplicitandimplicitLearningiscontextualizedLearningisrule-governedLearningisdirectedLearningisinteractive,Basicprinciplesoflanguageteaching,HelpstudentsmovefromlearningthelanguagetousingthelanguageLanguageshouldbetaughtasacommunicativemediumCreateagoodself-imageStudent-centeredclassroomAvarietyoflessonformats,teachingaidsandmethodsHaveclearobjectivesandchangesofpaceandactivitiesTheroleoftheteacherMistakesorerrorsareanaturalpartofthelanguagelearningprocessAnapproachofintegratingallfourlanguageskillsandmeaningfullanguagepracticeTeachersattitudeformotivatingthestudentsInstructionalandevaluationmethodsshapelearnersstrategyConductEnglishclassinEnglish,Objectivesofteachingandlearning,DeveloplinguisticcompetenceDevelopcommunicativecompetenceDevelopdiscoursecompetenceDeveloplearningcompetencetopromoteautonomyDeveloptask-tacklingcompetence,Whatisagoodlanguageteacher?,EthicdevotionNecessaryprofessionalqualitiesDesirablepersonalstyles,Howcanonebecomeagoodlanguageteacher?,“Liketeachers,likestudents.”Teacherscanexerttheirsubtleinfluenceonstudentsthroughwordsandbydeeds.Tobeateacherofthe21thcentury,agoodcommandofEnglishorlinguisticcompetenceisnotenough.,Thequalitiesaqualifiedteacherneedsinclude:,ellectualqualitiesc.applicationofCAI(computer-assistedinstruction)d.teachingpracticequalitiese.self-assessmentqualities,a.non-intellectualqualities,Psychologicalqualitiesareessentialfactors.strongwill-powergoodmotivationperseveranceout-goingcharacteristics,Howtodevelopnon-intellectualqualities?,KeepingtheinterestinstudyingEnglishKeepingstrong-willan