Lecture-6-The-Cognitive-Approach.ppt

Lecture6TheCognitiveApproach,Definitiontheydonothavetobetaughtlanguageorcorrectedfortheirmistakes,butlearnlanguagebybeingexposedtoit;andlinguisticrulesdevelopunconsciously.Thisprocessofacquiringtherulesofonesmothertonguebybeingexposedtoexamplesofthelanguage,andbyusingthelanguageforcommunicationiscalledlanguageacquisition.,TheoryoflearningunderlyingtheCognitiveApproach,Mainpoints1)Chomskysideasaboutlanguageacquisition:Childrenarebornwithspeciallanguagelearningabilities.Theydonothavetobetaughtorcorrectedfortheirmistakes.Theylearnlanguagebybeingexposedtoit.Linguisticrulesdevelopunconsciously.2)Theoryofcognitivepsychology:Learningmustinvolveorganizationofmaterial.Learningshouldbestructured.Structuregivesmeaningtopartspreviouslyincomprehensible.Learningshouldbemeaningful3)Piagetstheoryofcognitivedevelopment4)Schematheory5)Brunnerandhisdiscoverymethod,TheoryoflearningunderlyingtheCognitiveApproach,1.TheCognitiveApproachtolearningopposesthebehaviouristschool.2.TheCognitiveApproachemphasisoninnateorganizingprinciplesinhumanperceptionandlearning.3.InCognitiveApproach,thelearnerisseenasanactiveparticipantinthelearningprocess,usingvariousmentalstrategiesinordertosortoutthesystemofthelanguagetobetaught.Learningisamentalprocess.4.Secondlanguageacquisitionisviewedastheacquisitionofacomplexcognitiveskill,involvinginternalrepresentationsthatregulateandguideperformance.5.Cognitivepsychologistsregardedlearningasacognitiveprocesslanguageacquisitioninvolvinginternalrepresentationwhichofferregulationandguidanceforperformance.,TheoryoflearningunderlyingtheCognitiveApproach,6.Inthecaseoflanguageacquisition,theserepresentationsarebasedonthelanguagesystemandincludeproceduresforselectingappropriatevocabulary,grammarrules,andpragmaticconventionsgoverninglanguageuse.7.Asperformanceimproves,thereisconstantrestructuringaslearnerssimplify,unifyandgainincreasingcontrolovertheirinternalrepresentation.8.TohaveabetterunderstandingoftheCognitiveApproach,wellnowhavetoexamineitspsycholinguisticbasis-cognitivepsychologyanditsproponents.9.Cognitivepsychologydealswiththestudyofthenatureandlearningofsystemsofknowledge,particularlythoseprocessesinvolvedinthought,perception,comprehension,memoryandlearning.10.Cognitivepsychologyemphasisonthevariousmentalprocessesusedinthinking,remembering,perceiving,recognizing,classifying,etc.,TheoryoflearningunderlyingtheCognitiveApproach,11.Inrecentyearscognitivepsychologyhasbeenrelatedtomentalisticapproachestolinguistics,whichlinkslanguagestructuretothenatureofhumancognitiveprocesses.12.TheCognitivePsychologistholdthatlearningmustinvolveorganizationofmaterialandlearningshouldbestructured.13.Structurehasgivenmeaningtopartspreviouslyincomprehensible.14.Intheearly1960s,thefamousSwisspsychologistJ.Piagetestablishedhistheoryofcognitivedevelopment.15.Piagetholdsthatconceptualgrowthoccursbecausethechild,whileactivelyattemptingtoadapttotheenvironment,organizesactionintoschematathroughtheprocessesofassimilationandaccommodation.,TheoryoflearningunderlyingtheCognitiveApproach,16.Piagetsawcognitivedevelopmentasessentiallyaprocessofmaturationwithinwhichgeneticsandexperienceinteract.17.Thedevelopingmindisviewedasconstantlyseekingabalancebetweenwhatisknownandwhatiscurrentlybeingexperienced.Thisisaccomplishedbythecomplementaryprocessesofassimilationandaccommodation.18.Assimilationistheprocessbywhichincominginformationischangedormodifiedinourmindssothatwecanfititinwithwhatwealreadyknow.19.Accommodationistheprocessbywhichwemodifywhatwealreadyknowtotakeintoaccountnewinformation.Workinginconjunction,thesetwoprocessescontributetowhatPiagettermsthecentralprocessofcognitiveadaptation.20.Inthecaseofforeignorsecondlanguagelearning,maturationisreflectedintheprocessinwhichalearnergraduallygivesuphisownlanguage,culture,andsystemofvaluesandtakesonthoseofanothergroupwithadifferentlanguage,cultureandsystemofvalues,throughaperiodofinteraction.,TheoryoflearningunderlyingtheCognitiveApproach,21.TheschematheoryisanimportantelementinPiagetstheory.Theexpressionwascoinedtodescribe“anactiveorganizationofpastaction.”(对以往行为实行积极组织)22.TheschematheoryreferstothementalframeworkofpastexperienceswasputforwardbyJ.Piaget.23.AccordingtoPiaget,thoughtorthinkinghasitsorigininactionsphysicallyperformedandtheninternalized.Inotherwords,thoughtisinternalizedactions.24.Theschematheoryisonewhichis“action-based”,moreconcernedwiththeprocessoflearningthanwhatislearned.25.Thestartingpointofcognitivedevelopmentmustbeactivityonthepartofthechild,notpassivereceptionofoutsidestimulus.,TheoryoflearningunderlyingtheCognitiveApproach,26.Inthefieldofeducation,thefirstandmostimportanttaskfortheteacheristodiscoverandcarefullydefinetheelementaryschematarequiredtoenablethemostproductiveassimilation.27.Piagetscognitivetheoryoflearninghassignificantimplicationsforlanguageteachers”(1).Itisimportanttotakeaccountofthelearnerasanindividualactivelyinvolvedinconstructingmeaning.Whenlearnerslearnanewlanguage,theyareactivelyinvolvedinmakingtheirownsenseofthelanguageinputthatsurroundsthemaswellasthetaskspresentedtothem.Thusitisimportantforteacherstohelpandencouragelearnersinthisprocess,ratherthanseeingthemaspassivereceiversofthelanguage.,TheoryoflearningunderlyingtheCognitiveApproach,(2).Itisessentialtomatchtherequirementofanytasktothecognitivelevelofthelearner.Languagetaskssetbyteachersshouldbeneithertooabstractforthosewhoarenotyetconceptuallycapableoffunctioningatthislevel,nortoosimpleinthattheconceptuallevelisbelowthelevelofthelearnerscompetence.Withnewtopicatanystage,oneshouldproceedfromtheconcreteandpracticaltothemoredifficultandabstract.Withyoungchildrentheremaybelittlesuccessingoingbeyondtheconcreteaspectsofatopic.Whenconceptsarecumulative,theorderofpresentationmustbeworkedoutcarefullysoastobuildupschematainalogicalandorderlysequence.(3).WecanseetheapplicationofPiagetsnotionsofassimilationandaccommodationtolearninganewlanguage.Whenwereceivenewinputofthelanguage,forexample,bylisteningtoaconversation,weneedtomodifywhatwealreadyknowaboutthelanguage(accommodation)soasto“fit”thenewinformationintoourexistingknowledge(assimilation).Inthiswayourknowledgeofhowthesystemofthenewlanguageoperatesgraduallydevelops.,TheoryoflearningunderlyingtheCognitiveApproach,28.TwoparticularlysignificantcontributorstoinstructionalideasareJ.B.BrunnerandD.Ausubel.Theyaresimilarinmanyways,bothhavingacognitiveoutlookandrejectingbehaviourism.29.J.B.Bruner(1966)emphasizesactiverestructuringofknowledgethroughexperiencewiththeenvironment.30.ForBruner,theprocessofeducationisatleastasimportantasitsproductandhewasgreatlyinfluencedinhisearlywritingsbyPiagetsdescriptionofhochildrensthinkingdeveloped.,TheoryoflearningunderlyingtheCognitiveApproach,31.ToBruner,thedevelopmentofconceptualunderstandingandofcognitiveskillsandstrategiesisacentralaimofeducation.Learnersshouldorganizeknowledgeforthemselves,forexample,usingdiscoverymethods,ratherthanhavingmaterialspre-packagedbytheteachers32.Brunersdiscoverymethodsbelievesthatlearningismosteffectivelyachievedwhenchildrenareencouragedtoengageinguideddiscovery.33.Theprocessoflearningbydiscoveryinvolvesinduction(takingparticularinstancesandusingthemtodeviseageneralcase)withtheminimumofinstruction;anderrorfullearning(studentslearnthroughtrialanderror.)34.OneparticularlysignificantaspectofBrunersideasisthattheytakeabroadviewoftheeducationofthewholeperson.Heregardsasoneofthecentralelementsofthistheneedtolearnhowtolearn,whichheconsiderstobethekeytotransferringwhatislearnedformonesituationtoanother.35.ContrarytoBruner,D.Ausubel(1968)emphasizestheroleofexpositoryorreceptionlearningandisquitecriticalofsomeaspectsofdiscoverylearning.,TheoryoflearningunderlyingtheCognitiveApproach,36.AttheheartofAusubelsideasaretheconceptsof“meaningfulverballearningandadvanceorganizers.”Tobemeaningful,newmaterialsmustberelatedtoexistingknowledge.37.AccordingtoAusubel,itismoreeffectivelydonebystraigntforwardexplanationandexpositionratherthanbytime-consumingpupil-generateddiscoverymethods.38.AccordingtoD.Ausubel,theprinciplefunctionofadvanceorganizersistoactasabridgebetweenwhatlearnersalreadyknowandwhattheyneedtoknow.39.ThecognitivetheoryoflearningasputforwardbyAusubelisperhapsbestunderstoodbycontrastingroteandmeaningfullearning.40.Rotelearningreferstothelearningofmaterialbyrepeatingitoverandoveragainuntilitismemorized,withoutexistingcognitivestructure,thelearnedmaterialwillsoonbeforgotten.,TheoryoflearningunderlyingtheCognitiveApproach,41.Ameaningfullylearned,subsumeditemhasfargreaterpotentialforretention.42.Meaningfullearningtheorymakesacleardistinctionbetweenmeaningfulandmeaninglesslearningactivities.43.Ameaningfulacting,inKellyssense,isonethatencouragesthisprocessofmakingsense.44.G.Kelly,aclinicalpsychologist,andothereducationalpsychologistsmadeacleardistinctionbetweenmeaningfulandmeaninglesslearningactivities.45.Languageisnotlearnedbythemerememorizationofdiscreteitemsofgrammar,discourse,functionorotheraspectsoflanguage.Rather,learnersareinvolvedinanactiveprocessofmakingsense,ofcreatingtheirownunderstandingoftheworldoflanguagethatsurroundsthem.,TheoryoflearningunderlyingtheCognitiveApproach,46.Ameaningfulactivity,inKellyssense,isonethatencouragesthisprocessofmakingsense,offittingormappingthenewontotheoldtocreateanewunderstanding.47.Cognitivepsychologistslayemphasison“meaningfullearning”andholdthatmeaningisunderstoodnotasabehaviouralresponse,butasaclearlyarticulatedandpreciselydifferentialconsciousexperiencethatemergeswhenpotentialmeaningfulsigns,symbols,concepts,orpropositionsarerelatedtoandincorporatedwithinagivenindividualscognitivestructure.48.Languagelearningisthediscoveryoftheunderlyingstructureofthelanguagebymeansofinductiveanddeductiveinference.49.Bothdiscoveryandpracticearetotakeplaceinacontextwhichexposesthelearnertothetotalrangeoflanguagefromthestart.Heshouldbeallowedsentencesandsemi-sentencesfreely,whethercorrectornot,andgivenachancetopracticeinsituationswhichdemandcommunication:andcorrectionshouldtaketheformof“expansion”ofthekindofamotheremploysinhelpingherchildtocommunicate.,TheoryoflearningunderlyingtheCognitiveApproach,50.HowdoyouunderstandthefourprinciplesofcognitivismformulatedbyDiller?Dillersfirstprinciplethatalivinglanguageischaracterizedbyrule-governedcreativityimpliestheteachingofalanguageasaconsciouslylearntsystem.Thesecondprincipleisthattherulesofgrammararepsychologicallyreal.Therulesofanewlanguagearebestlearntinconjunctionwithdemonstrationandpractice.Fromthetwoprinciplesabovewemustinsistthatthelearneristhecontreoflanguageteachingandlanguagepracticeisthemainformofclassroomteaching.Thethirdisthatmanisespeciallyequippedtolearnlanguagesandlearninglanguageisahumancharacteristic.Fromthisprinciplewecandrawaconclusionthatlanguagelearningoccursatanytimeinlifeinasituationofmeaningfuluse.Weshouldtakeabroadviewofeducationofthewholeperson(lifelongeducation).Thelastprincipleisthatalivinglanguageisalanguageinwhichwecanthinkanditisboundupwithmeaningfulandthinking.Weshouldemphasizelanguageunderstanding,meaningfullearningandmeaningfulpracticeduringtheentirelearningprocess.,Notes,1)Thedevelopingchildbuildscognitivestructures-inotherwords,mentalmaps,schemes,ornetworkedconceptsforunderstandingandrespondingtophysicalexperienceswithinhisorherenvironment(Piagetstheory).,2)Schematheoryis“anactiveorganizationofpastaction”,whichreferstothementalframeworkofpastexperiences,thosethingsapersonstoresinhislong-termmemory.3)J.B.Bruneremphasizesactiverestructuringofknowledgethroughexperiencewiththeenvironment.,BasicPrinciples,Mainfeatures,1)Knowledgeoflanguagerulesfacilitateslearning.2)Rulesaretaughtdeductively.3)Competencecomesbeforeperformance.4)Thelearneristhecenterofclassroomteaching./learner-centeredclass.5)Languagepracticeisthemainformofclassroomteaching.6)Learningisbasedonunderstanding.7)CognitiveApproachgivesequalimportancetoallthefourskills.8)Mistakesareunavoidable.,MainfeaturesoftheCognitiveApproach,1.TheCognitiveApproachconcentratesonthelearnersprocessesofknowledgeratherthanonmechanisticproceduresimposeduponhisbytheteacher.2.Attheleveloflinguistictheory,itsignalsarejectionoftheviewthatlanguageisexternaltothemindoftheindividual.3.Atthelevelofphychologicallearningtheory,itsignalsarejectionofstimulus-responsemodels.4.Atthelevelofteachingtechniques,itsignalstheenvironmentofdeliberategrammarteachingasanaidtolearning.5.Cognitivismstatesthatknowledgeoflanguagerulesfacilitatelearning.,MainfeaturesoftheCognitiveApproach,6.ThebasictenetoftheCognitiveApproachwhichisdifferentfromthatoftheAudiolingualMethodis,whileintheAudiolingualMethod,teacherswerewarnednottotellthelearneraboutthelanguage,thatis,nottoteachgrammar.Grammararetaughtdeductively.IntheCognitiveApproach,teachersarerequiredtotellthelearneraboutthelanguage,becauseknowledgeoflanguagerulesfacilitateslearning.8.Itisbelievedthatknowledgeoflanguagerulesformthelearnerslanguagefoundation.Theymustlearntherulesofthelanguagebeforeapplyingthem.Competencecomesbeforeperformance.9.TheCognitiveApproachholdsthatgrammarisimportant,butisnevertaughtforitsownsake.Thelearningofgrammarshouldbeconductedinafunctionalwaysothatstudentsmayapplywhattheyhavelearnttoactualcommunicativeituaions.10.TheCognitiveApproachbelievesthatlearnersplayadecisiveroleinforeignlanguagelearning.,MainfeaturesoftheCognitiveApproach,11.Toachievetheteachingobjectives,theteachermustunderstandthepsychologyofthelearner.12.Positiveattitude,confidence,strongmotivationandcorrectlearningmethodallplayapartinthesuccessoflanguagelearning.13.Sincethelearneristhecenterofclassroomteaching,languagepracticeshouldbethemainformoflearning.14.Opportunitiesshouldbeprovidedsothatstudentscandeveloptheabilityofusingthetargetlanguagethroughactiveparticipationinlanguagecommunication.15.InaCognitiveclassroom,itistheteachersresponsibilitytoteachthestudentsnotonlylanguageknowledgeandlanguageskills,butalsotheabilitytolearnbythemselves.,MainfeaturesoftheCognitiveApproach,16.TheCognitiveApproachinsiststhatlearningisbasedonunderstanding.Humantypelearningisdifferentfromanimaltypelearningwhichistheresultofstimulus-response.Languagelearningisacreativeprocess.Thestudentscanonlyperformaftertheyhaveunderstoodthesystemofthelanguage.Wecantimitatewithoutactivatingacognitiveprocess.17.Theteachershouldalwaysmakesurethatstudentsunderstandwhattheyaredoing.18.InaCognitiveApproachclassroom,meaningfullearningandmeaningfulpracticeareemphasizedduringtheentirelearningprocess.Inameaningfulprocesslikesecondlanguagelearning,mindlessrepetition,imitationandotherrotelyorientedpracticeshavenoplaceintheclassroom.19.TheCognitiveApproachgivesequalimportancetoallthefourskills.Anyofthemcouldgetpriorityaccordingtothegoalofthecourseandtheneedsofthestudents.Itisheldthatthereceptiveskills-listeningandreading-shouldprecedespeakingandwriting,becausetheyarethemeansofdevelopingandexpandingcompetence,withoutwhichtherewillbenoperformance.EspeciallyinaForeignLanguagelearningsituation,writtenmaterialscanhelplearning.20.Whenaforeignlanguagelearnercanresorttoallthepossibletargetlanguageresources,learningwillbemoreeffective.,MainfeaturesoftheCognitiveApproach,21.TheattitudeoftheCognitiveApproachtowardsmistakesinthelanguagelearningprocessisdifferentfromthatoftheAudiolingualMethod.22.TheCognitiveApproachholdsmistakesareunavoidableinthecreativeuseoflanguage.Studentsmistakesareanecessaryandnaturalphenomenon,andafeatureofthelanguageasheprogressesinthesecondlanguage.23.Semi-grammaticalsentencesshouldbeacceptedasanormalstagetowardsnative-likecompetence.Studentsshouldbeledtolearnandusethelanguagebymakinghypothesis,testingthehypothesisandthenmakecorrections.24.Whattheteachershoulddoistoanalyzethemistakessothattheycouldfindthecauseanddosomeremedialworkaccordingly.,Objectives,todevelopinthestudentsthenative-likecompetence;todevelopintuitivethinkinginlearners;todevelopstrategiesoflanguageuse;toenablethestudentstolearnfromerrors,ObjectivesoftheCognitiveApproach,1.ThegoaloftheCognitiveApproachistodevelopinthestudentsthesametypeofabilitiespossessedbynativespeakers.2.Cognitivetheoryislessconcernedwiththeprimacyoftheaudiolingualskills.3.Cognitivetheoryemphasizesthecontrolofthelanguageinallitsmanifestationsasacoherentandmeaningfulsystem,akindofconsciouslyacquired“competence”whichthelearnercanthenputtouseinreal-lifesituations.4.Brunerarguesthatthefirstobjectiveofanyactoflearningisthatisshouldserveusinthefuture;itshouldnotonlytakeussomewhere,butshouldalsoallowuslatertogofurthermoreeasily.5.ForBrunerthemostgeneralobjectiveofeducationisthecultivationofexcellence,whichcanonlybeachievedbychallenginglearnerstoexercisetheirfullpowerstobecomecompletelyabsorbedinproblemsandtherebydiscoverthepleasureoffullandeffectivefunctioning.,ObjectivesoftheCognitiveApproach,6.TheobjectivesoftheCognitiveApproachare:(1).Todevelopinthestudentsthenative-likecompetence.(2).Todevelopintuitivethinkinginlearners.(3).Todevelopstrategiesoflanguageuse;(4).Toenablethestudentstolearnfromerrors.Itisimportanttoencourageintuitivethinkinginlearners.Therefore,teachersneedtoseekabalancebetween,ontheonehandteachingaspectsofthetargetlanguageandskillsinthelanguage,andontheotherhand,developingthelearnersabilitytoanalyzethelanguage,tomakeguessesastohowrulesoperate,totakerisksintryingoutthelanguage,andtolearnformtheirerrors.,TechniquesoftheCognitiveApproach,1.TheCognitiveApproachemphasizestheconsciousteachingofgrammaroroflanguagerules.Itdoesnotavoidthepresentationofreadingandwritinginassociationwithlisteningandspeaking.2.TheCognitiveApproachseekstheintellectualunderstandingbythelearnerofthelanguageasasystem;andpracticeofmeaningfulmaterialsisregardedasbeingofgreatermeritthanthedrivetowardsautomaticcontrol.3.Rulelearning,meaningfulpractice,andcreativityarethefocusofclassroomteaching.4.Cognitiveexercises,applicationexercises,definitionsareusedinmeaningfulpracticeoftechniqueoftheCognitiveApproach.,TechniquesoftheCognitiveApproach,5.Rulelearning(规则学习):consciousteachingofgrammar;paraphrasing;explanation.6.Meaningfulpractice