chapter-5-semantics语义学.ppt

Chapter5SemanticsInstructedby:YanShangyuan,1.Whatissemantics?(p.104),Itisthestudyofmeaning.1.1OgdenandRichardsTheMeaningofMeaning(1923)22majorcategoriesofmeaning,1.2Meaningasnaming(p.105),Namingtheory(Plato):themeaningofexpressioniswhatitrefersto,ornames.Thesemanticrelationshipholdingbetweenawordandthethingitdenotesistherelationshipofnaming.Inotherwords,wordsare“names”or“labels”forthingsinourmindorinourexperience.,Limitationsofthenamingtheory:,Meaningisabstractandnotrelatedtoindividualthings.Themeaningofbookisrelatedtothegenerationofthecommonpropertiesofthingswhichcanbecalledbooks.Meaningunderstoodinthistheorycanatbestcoveronlypartofnouns,butnottherestofwordsofthisclass,norwordsofotherclasses.e.g:sincerity,red,that,quickly,if,and,from.,1.3Meaningasconcept(p.106),Conceptualisttheory(OgdenandRichards):expressionsactuallymeantheconceptorideaassociatedwiththem.Anyparticularsoundimageispsychologicallyassociatedwithaparticularconcept.Everyoneofuswhoknowsthewordorexpressionhasaconceptorideainhismindassociatedwithit.,SemanticTrianglebyOgdenandRichards:,thought(concept)symbol(word)referent(thing),Explanation:,Thesymbolreferstothelinguisticelements(mainlyreferringtowords).Thereferentistheobjectintherealworldorinmansexperience.Referencereferstotheconceptaboutthereferent.Conceptisthegeneralizationofaclassofindividualobjects.,Alinguisticformsymbolizesaconceptandthereforethereisnodirect(necessaryandintrinsic)relationbetweenthesymbol(theword)andthereferent.Thewordisassociatedwiththereferentbyvirtueofreference(concept).Thesymbolandconceptarelinkedbyapsychologicallyassociativebond.,Merits:,Itrecognizesthecloserelationbetweenmeaningandconceptandtheroleofconceptinformingmeaning.Limitations:(1)Sinceitonlylooksatthemeaningofwords,itcantexplainhowthemeaningsofmorphemesinapolymorphemicwordarerelatedtoeachotherandhowtheyareorganizedintothemeaningoftheword.E.g:uncompromisingly,(2)Itfailstointerpretthepolysemicphenomenon,i.e.whyawordmayhaveseveraldifferentmeaningsandhowthesemeaningarerelated.e.g:ball(3)Itfailstointerpretthequestionofwhywordswithdifferentmeaningmayhavethesamereferent.e.g:morningstar/eveningstarWashington/thecapitalofUSA(4)AccordingtotheSemanticTriangle,eachwordinalanguagehasitsreferent.However,forsomewords,therearenotreferentstothem,e.g:if,and,so,perhaps,therefore.,(5)Thereferentsofsomewordsmayvaryaccordingtothecontextinwhichtheyoccur.e.g:goodcar/goodteacher/gooddictionary/good-hearted(6)Tosummarize,theSemanticTrianglebasicallysuffersfromlookingatthemeaningofwordsinisolationandignoringtheinterrelationofwordsandthesemanticstructureofalanguage.,1.4Meaningasbehavior(p.107),Behaviorism(Bloomfield):Languageisregardedakindofhumanbehaviorandcanbetreatedinthewayoftreatingnon-verbalbehaviorsofhumanbeings.Bloomfieldsstimulus-reactionmodel:SrsR,Jillishungry.SheseesanappleandbysayingsomethinggetsJacktofetchitforher.S:Jillshungerr:alinguisticresponses:alinguisticstimulusforJackR:non-linguisticRESPONSEofgettingtheapple,1.5Meaningascontext(p.107),Contextualistview(inspiredbyMalinovsky,proposedbyFirth):Contextdeterminesthemeaning;meaningisfoundinthecontextwithinwhichaparticularexpressionisutteredsuggeststhatwecanderivemeaningfromtheobservablecontext.Twokindsofcontext:(1)alinguisticcontextand(2)asituationalcontext.,Situationalcontext:thespatio-temporalsituationinwhichutteranceismade.Situationalcontextmainlyinclude:thesetting(formal,informal)thespeakerandhearer(relationship,position)theactivitiestheyareengagedinatthetimethepresenceorabsenceofotherparticipants(relationship,position)thepresenceofvariousexternalobjectsandevents,1.6Meaningastruthconditions(p.109),Truth-conditionaltheory:Knowingthemeaningofasentenceisthesameasknowingtheconditionsunderwhichthesentenceistrueorfalse.SistrueifandonlyifP,e.g:Peterismarried.TheremustbesomeindividualcalledPeter;Thereisasocialinstitutioncalledmarriage;Thisindividualisinvolvedinthisstateofmarriage.Problem:Howcanwediscussthemeaningofinterrogativesandimperatives?,2.Wordmeaning(p.110),2.1SenseandreferenceSenseisdefinedintermsofrelationshipswhichholdbetweenthelinguisticelementsthemselves(mostlywords),itisconcernedwithintralinguisticrelations.Referenceorextensiondealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelements(words,sentences,etc.)andthenon-linguisticworldofexperience(things,actions,eventsandqualities).,Sensereferstotheabstractpropertiesofanentity;referencereferstotheconcreteentitieshavingtheseproperties.Wecansayeverywordhasasense,butnoteverywordhasareference.Grammaticalwordslikebut,if,anddonotrefertoanything.WordslikeGod,ghost,dragonrefertoimaginarythings,whichhavenoreference.Thereisnoabsolutedividinglinebetweenwhatisintheworldandwhatisinlanguage.ForLeech,senseandreferencemeanthesimilarideaasconnotationanddenotation.,2.2Leech:Seventypesofmeaning(p.111),Conceptual/denotative/referentialmeaning:concernswiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitrefersto.(central)Associativemeaning(2-6):Connotativemeaning:thepropertiesoftheentityawordrefersto.Socialmeaning(usuallystylistic):thesocialcircumstancesoflanguageuse(dialects,registers).,Affectivemeaning:thefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker/writerconveyedbytheword.Reflectivemeaning:associatedwithanothersenseofthesameexpression.Collocativemeaning:associatedwithwordswhichtendtooccurintheenvironmentofanotherword.Thematicmeaning:determinedbytheorderofthewordsinasentenceandthedifferentprominencetheyeachreceive.,Q1:WhatisthedifferenceofConnotationandDenotationinphilosophy?Canyouexplainthisbytheexampleofhuman?A1:ThedenotationisanypersonsuchasJohnandMary,theconnotationisbiped,featherless,rational,etc.Q2:Whatisthedifferencebetweenpoliticianandstatesman?A2:Theaffectivemeaningsaredifferent.Theformerisderogatoryandthelatterisfavorable.,Q3:Whatisthedifferencebetweencast,throwandchuck?A3:Thesocialmeanings(stylisticmeanings)aredifferent.Castisliterary,throwisgeneralandchuckiscasual.Q4:Whatisthereflectivemeaningofintercourse?A4:Sexual.,Q5:Whatisthecollocativemeaningofthewordprettyinprettygirl/boy/woman/color?A5:Ithassuchcollocativemeanings:beautiful/charming/graceful/elegant.Q6:Whichreceivesthethematicmeaninginthefollowingsentences?MrSmithdonatedthemoney.ThemoneywasdonatedbyMr.Smith.A6:Theunderlined.,2.3Semanticfield(p.117),Asetofwordswithanidentifiablesemanticconnection.Set1:cup,mug,wineglass,tumbler,plasticcup,gobletSet1constituteasemanticfield.Sports:tennis,badminton,golf,soccer,basketballKinshipterms:father,mother,brother,sister,uncleEmotions:angry,happy,sad,afraid,depressed,Theabsenceofawordinaparticularplaceinasemanticfieldofalanguageiscalledlexicalgap.InEnglish,thereisnosingularnounthatcoversbothcowandbullashorsecoversstallionandmare.Wehavebrotherversussister,sonversusdaughter,butnoseparatelexemesfor“male”and“female”cousin.,2.4Componentialanalysis(p.118),Componentialanalysisreferstoanapproachadoptedbystructuralsemanticistsindescribingthemeaningofwordsorphrases.Thisapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthetotalmeaningofawordcanbeanalyzedintermsofanumberofdistinctelementsormeaningcomponents(calledsemanticfeatures).,Componentialanalysisisoftenseenasaprocessaimingatbreakingdownthemeaningofawordintoitsminimaldistinctivefeaturesorproperties,whicharealsocalledcomponentsbysomelinguists.Onewayofdescribingthecomponentsofawordistousefeaturesymbols,whichareusuallywrittenincapitalizedletters,with“+”“-”beforethem,plussignindicatesthepresenceofacertainproperty,andminussignindicatestheabsenceofit.e.g.man:+HUMAN+ADULT+MALEwoman:+HUMAN+ADULTMALEboy:+HUMANADULT+MALEgirl:+HUMANADULTMALE,father=PARENT(X,Y)beginwithacapitalletterandendwithaperiod,questionmarkorexclamationmark.Proposition:canbejudgedtobetrueorfalse.(P.126eg:18)1.Asentenceisaproposition.(F)2.Anypropositionisasentence.(F)3.Differentsentencesmayexpressthesameproposition.(T),3.2semanticroles(p.127),Semanticroleofanounphrase:Thehunterhitthelion.Agent:theresponsibleinitiatorofanaction.Patient:theentitythatundergoesacertainchangeofstate.Johnlikesblueberrypancakes.Experiencer:whoisexperiencingaphysicalormentalsensation.,Johnwasinjuredbyastone.Instrument:theintermediarythroughwhichanagentperformstheaction.Cause:anynaturalforcethatbringsaboutachangeofstate.IgaveJohnapuppy.Recipient:thatwhichreceivesaphysicalobject.,JohnpassedthemessagetomeforTom.Benefactive:thatforwhichanactionisperformed.Beijingiscoldinwinter.Locative:thelocationofanactionorstate.Shelefthomethedaybeforeyesterday.Temporal:thetimeatwhichtheactionorstateoccurred.,3.3Sententialrelationships(p.131)1.Entailmen