国外组织行为学课件皮尔森ch07.ppt

Chapter7GroupsandTeamwork,LearningObjectives,Definegroupsanddistinguishbetweenformalandinformalgroups.Discussgroupdevelopment.Explainhowgroupsizeandmemberdiversityinfluencewhatoccursingroups.,LearningObjectives(continued),Reviewhownorms,roles,andstatusaffectsocialinteraction.Discussthecausesandconsequencesofgroupcohesiveness.Explainthedynamicsofsocialloafing.,LearningObjectives(continued),Discusshowtodesignandsupportself-managedteams.Explainthelogicbehindcross-functionalteamsanddescribehowtheycanoperateeffectively.Understandvirtualteamsandwhatmakesthemeffective.,WhatIsaGroup?,Agroupconsistsoftwoormorepeopleinteractinginterdependentlytoachieveacommongoal.Interactionisthemostbasicaspectofagroup.Interdependencemeansthatgroupmembersrelytosomedegreeoneachothertoaccomplishgoals.,WhatIsaGroup?(continued),Whyisgroupmembershipimportant?Groupsexertinfluenceonus.Groupsprovideacontextinwhichweareabletoexertinfluenceonothers.,FormalWorkGroups,Formalworkgroupsaregroupsthatareestablishedbyorganizationstofacilitatetheachievementoforganizationalgoals.Themostcommonformalgroupconsistsofamanagerandtheemployeeswhoreporttothemanager.Othertypesofformalworkgroups:TaskforcesCommittees,InformalGroups,Informalgroupsaregroupsthatemergenaturallyinresponsetothecommoninterestsoforganizationalmembers.Theyareseldomsanctionedbytheorganization.Informalgroupscaneitherhelporhurtanorganization,dependingontheirnormsforbehaviour.,GroupDevelopment,Groupsarecomplexsocialdevices.Theyrequireafairamountofnegotiationandtrial-and-errorbeforeindividualmembersbegintofunctionasatruegroup.Howdogroupsdevelop?,TypicalStagesofGroupDevelopment,Groupsdevelopthroughaseriesofstagesovertime.Eachstagepresentsthememberswithaseriesofchallengestheymustmastertoachievethenextstage.Thestagesmodelisagoodtoolformonitoringandtroubleshootinghowgroupsaredeveloping.,TypicalStagesofGroupDevelopment(continued),Notallgroupsgothroughthesestages.Theprocessappliesmainlytonewgroupsthathavenevermetbefore.,StagesofGroupDevelopment,Forming,Groupmemberstrytoorientthemselvesby“testingthewaters.”Thesituationisoftenambiguous,andmembersareawareoftheirdependencyoneachother.,Storming,Conflictoftenemergesatthisstage.Confrontationandcriticismoccurasmembersdeterminewhethertheywillgoalongwiththewaythegroupisdeveloping.Sortingoutrolesandresponsibilitiesisoftenatissue.,Norming,Membersresolvetheissuesthatprovokedthestorming,andtheydevelopsocialconsensus.Compromiseisoftennecessary.Normsareagreedonandthegroupbecomesmorecohesive.Informationandopinionsflowfreely.,Performing,Thegroupdevotesitsenergiestowardtaskaccomplishment.Achievement,creativity,andmutualassistanceareprominentthemesatthisstage.,Adjourning,Ritesandritualsthataffirmthegroupsprevioussuccessfuldevelopmentarecommon.Membersoftenexhibitemotionalsupportforeachother.,PunctuatedEquilibriumModel,Amodelofgroupdevelopmentthatdescribeshowgroupswithdeadlinesareaffectedbytheirfirstmeetingsandcrucialmidpointtransitions.Equilibriummeansstability.Stretchesofgroupstabilitypunctuatedbyacriticalfirstmeeting,amidpointchangeingroupactivity,andarushtotaskcompletion.Doesthesequencesoundfamiliartoyou?,Phase1,Beginswiththefirstmeetingandcontinuesuntilthemidpointinthegroupsexistence.Thefirstmeetingiscriticalinsettingtheagendaforwhatwillhappenintheremainderofthephase.Thegroupmakeslittlevisibleprogresstowardthegoal.,MidpointTransition,Occursatalmostexactlythehalfwaypointintimetowardthegroupsdeadline.Thetransitionmarksachangeinthegroupsapproach.Howthegroupmanagesitiscriticalforthegrouptoshowprogress.ThistransitioncrystallizesthegroupsactivitiesforPhase2.,Phase2,DecisionsandapproachesadoptedatthemidpointgetplayedoutinPhase2.Itconcludeswithafinalmeetingthatrevealsaburstofactivityandaconcernforhowoutsiderswillevaluatetheproduct.,ThePunctuatedEquilibriumModelofGroupDevelopmentforTwoGroups,PunctuatedEquilibriumModel(continued),Adviceformanagingteams:Preparecarefullyforthefirstmeeting.Aslongaspeopleareworking,donotlookforradicalprogressduringPhase1.Managethemidpointtransitioncarefully.BesurethatadequateresourcesareavailabletoactuallyexecutethePhase2plan.Resistdeadlinechanges.,GroupStructureandItsConsequences,Groupstructurereferstothecharacteristicsofthestablesocialorganizationofagroup-thewayagroupis“puttogether.”Themostbasicstructuralcharacteristicsalongwhichgroupsvaryaresizeandmemberdiversity.Otherstructuralcharacteristicsaregroupnorms,roles,status,andcohesiveness.,GroupSize,Thesmallestpossiblegroupconsistsoftwopeople,suchasamanagerandaparticularemployee.Inpractice,mostworkgroups,includingtaskforcesandcommittees,usuallyhavebetween3and20members.,GroupSizeandSatisfaction,Membersoflargergroupsconsistentlyreportlesssatisfactionwithgroupmembershipthanthoseinsmallergroups.Chancetoworkonanddevelopfriendshipsdecreaseassizeincreases.Largergroupsmightpromptconflictanddissension.,GroupSizeandSatisfaction(continued),Manypeopleareinhibitedaboutparticipatinginlargergroups.Inlargegroups,individualmembersidentifylesseasilywiththesuccessandaccomplishmentsofthegroup.,GroupSizeandPerformance,Dolargegroupsperformtasksbetterthansmallgroups?Therelationshipbetweengroupsizeandperformancedependsonthetaskthegroupneedstoaccomplishandonhowwedefinegoodperformance.Typesoftasks:AdditivetasksDisjunctivetasksConjunctivetasks,AdditiveTasks,Tasksinwhichgroupperformanceisdependentonthesumoftheperformanceofindividualgroupmembers.Foradditivetasks,thepotentialperformanceofthegroupincreaseswithgroupsize.,DisjunctiveTasks,Tasksinwhichgroupperformanceisdependentontheperformanceofthebestgroupmember.Thepotentialperformanceofgroupsdoingdisjunctivetasksincreaseswithgroupsize.,ProcessLosses,Groupperformancedifficultiesstemmingfromtheproblemsofmotivatingandcoordinatinglargergroups.Asgroupsperformingtasksgetbigger,theytendtosufferfromprocesslosses.Problemsofcommunicationanddecisionmakingincreasewithsize.Actualperformance=PotentialperformanceProcesslosses,GroupSize,Productivity,andProcessLosses,GroupSize,Productivity,andProcessLosses,GroupSize,Productivity,andProcessLosses,ProcessLosses(continued),Potentialperformanceandprocesslossesincreasewithgroupsizeforadditiveanddisjunctivetasks.Actualperformanceincreaseswithsizeuptoapointandthenfallsoff.Theaverageperformanceofgroupmembersdecreasesassizegetsbigger.,ProcessLosses(continued),Thus,uptoapoint,largergroupsmightperformbetterasgroups,buttheirindividualmemberstendtobelessefficient.,ConjunctiveTasks,Tasksinwhichgroupperformanceislimitedbytheperformanceofthepoorestgroupmember.Boththepotentialandactualperformanceofconjunctivetaskswoulddecreaseasgroupsizeincreases.,GroupSizeandPerformance:Summary,Foradditiveanddisjunctivetasks,largergroupsmightperformbetteruptoapointbutatincreasingcoststotheefficiencyofindividualmembers.Performanceonpurelyconjunctivetasksshoulddecreaseasgroupsizeincreases.,DiversityofGroupMembership,Diversegroupshaveamoredifficulttimecommunicatingeffectivelyandbecomingcohesive.Diversegroupsmighttakelongertodotheirforming,storming,andnorming.Oncetheydodevelop,moreandlessdiversegroupsareequallycohesiveandproductive.,DiversityofGroupMembership(continued),Diversegroupssometimesperformbetterwhenthetaskrequirescognitive,creativity-demandingtasks,andproblem-solving.Ingeneral,anynegativeeffectsof“surfacediversity”inage,gender,orraceseemtowearoffovertime.“Deepdiversity”inattitudestowardworkorhowtoaccomplishagoalcanbadlydamagecohesiveness.,GroupNorms,Socialnormsarecollectiveexpectationsthatmembersofsocialunitshaveregardingthebehaviourofeachother.Theyarecodesofconductthatspecifythestandardsagainstwhichweevaluatetheappropriatenessofbehaviour.Mostnormativeinfluenceisunconscious;weareonlyawareofitinspecialcircumstances.,NormDevelopment,Whydonormsdevelop?Normsprovideregularityandpredictabilitytobehaviour.Whatdonormsdevelopabout?Normsdevelopaboutbehavioursthatareatleastmarginallyimportanttotheirsupporters.Howdonormsdevelop?Sharedattitudesamongmembersofagroupformthebasisfornorms.,NormDevelopment(continued),Whydoindividualscomplywithnorms?Thenormcorrespondstoprivatelyheldattitudes.Theyoftensavetimeandpreventsocialconfusion.Groupshavearangeofrewardsandpunishmentsavailabletoinduceconformitytonorms.,SomeTypicalNorms,Sometypesofnormsthatexistinmostorganizationsandaffectthebehaviourofmembersinclude:DressnormsRewardallocationnorms(equity,equality,reciprocity,socialresponsibility)Performancenorms,Roles,Positionsinagroupthathaveasetofexpectedbehavioursattachedtothem.Rolesrepresent“packages”ofnormsthatapplytoparticulargroupmembers.Therearetwobasickindsofrolesinorganizations:AssignedrolesEmergentroles,RoleAmbiguity,Roleambiguityexistswhenthegoalsofonesjoborthemethodsofperformingitareunclear.Thereareavarietyofelementsthatcanleadtoroleambiguity:OrganizationalfactorsTherolesenderThefocalperson,AModeloftheRoleAssumptionProcess,RoleAmbiguity(continued),Whatarethepracticalconsequencesofroleambiguity?Themostfrequentoutcomesarejobstress,dissatisfaction,reducedorganizationalcommitment,lowerperformance,andintentionstoquit.Managerscanreduceroleambiguitybyprovidingclearperformanceexpectationsandperformancefeedback.,RoleConflict,Roleconflictexistswhenanindividualisfacedwithincompatibleroleexpectations.Therearefourtypesofroleconflict:IntrasenderroleconflictIntersenderroleconflictInterroleconflictPerson-roleconflict,IntrasenderRoleConflict,Asinglerolesenderprovidesincompatibleroleexpectationstoaroleoccupant.Thistypeofroleconflictisespeciallylikelytoalsoprovokeambiguity.,IntersenderRoleConflict,Twoormorerolesendersprovidearoleoccupantwithincompatibleexpectations.Employeeswhostraddletheboundarybetweentheorganizationanditsclientsorcustomersareespeciallylikelytoencounterthisformofconflict.Itcanalsostemfromwithintheorganization.,InterroleConflict,Severalrolesheldbyaroleoccupantinvolveincompatibleexpectations.Competingdemandsforonestimeareafrequentsymptomofinterroleconflict.,Person-RoleConflict,Roledemandscallforbehaviourthatisincompatiblewiththepersonalityorskillsofaroleoccupant.Manyexamplesof“whistle-blowing”aresignalsofperson-roleconflict.Theorganizationhasdemandedsomerolebehaviourthattheoccupantconsidersunethical.,RoleConflict:Consequences,Themostconsistentconsequencesofroleconflictarejobdissatisfaction,stressreactions,loweredorganizationalcommitment,andturnoverintentions.,RoleConflict(continued),Managerscanhelppreventemployeeroleconflictby:Avoidingself-contradictorymessagesConferringwithotherrolesendersBeingsensitivetomultipleroledemandsFittingtherightpersontotherightrole,Status,Statusintherank,socialposition,orprestigeaccordedtogroupmembers.Itrepresentsthegroupsevaluationofamember.Whatisevaluateddependsonthestatussysteminquestion.Allorganizationshavebothformalandinformalstatussystems.,FormalStatusSystems,Representsmanagementsattempttopubliclyidentifythosepeoplewhohavehigherstatusthanothers.Statussymbolsaretangibleindicatorsofstatus(e.g.,titles,paypackages,workschedules).Formalorganizationstatusisbasedonseniorityinonesgroupandonesassignedroleintheorganizationonesjob.,FormalStatusSystems(continued),Whydoorganizationsgotoallthetroubletodifferentiatestatus?Theyserveaspowerfulmagnetstoinducememberstoaspiretohigherorganizationalpositions.Reinforcestheauthorityhierarchyinworkgroupsandintheorganizationasawhole.,InformalStatusSystems,Suchsystemsarenotwelladvertised,andtheymightlacktheconspicuoussymbolsandsystematicsupportthatpeopleusuallyaccordtheformalsystem.Theycanoperatejustaseffectivelyasformalstatussystems.Informalstatusislinkedtojobperformanceaswellasotherfactorssuchasgenderorrace.,ConsequencesofStatusDifferences,Mostpeopleliketocommunicatewithothersattheirownstatusorhigher,ratherthanwithpeoplewhoarebelowthem.Tendencyforcommunicationtomoveupthestatushierarchy.Ifstatusdifferencesarelarge,peoplecanbeinhibitedfromcommunicatingupward.Higher-statusmembersdomoretalkingandhavemoreinfluence.,ReducingStatusBarriers,Becausetheyinhibitthefreeflowofcommunication,manyorganizationsdownplaystatusdifferentiationbydoingawaywithstatussymbols.Thegoalistofosteracultureofteamworkandcooperationacrosstheranks.Emailseemstohaveleveledstatusbarriers.,GroupCohesiveness,Groupcohesivenessisacriticalpropertyofgroups.Itreferstothedegreetowhichagroupisespeciallyattractivetoitsmembers.Memberswanttostayinthegroupandtheydescribethegroupinfavourableterms.Cohesivenessisarelative,ratherthanabsolute,propertyofgroups.,FactorsInfluencingCohesiveness,Whatmakessomegroupsmorecohesivethanothers?ThreatandCompetitionExternalthreattothesurvivalofthegroupincreasescohesiveness.Honestcompetitionwithanothergroupcanalsopromotecohesiveness.Thegroupbecomesmorecohesivebecauseitimprovescommunicationandcoordination.,FactorsInfluencingCohesiveness(continued),SuccessGroupsbecomemorecohesivewhentheysuccessfullyaccomplishsomeimportantgoal.Cohesivenesswilldecreaseafterfailure.MemberDiversityGroupsthataremorediversecanhaveahardertimebecomingcohesive.Ifthereisagreementabouthowtoaccomplishatask,itssuccesswilloftenoutweighsurfacedissimilarityindeterminingcohesiveness.,Competition,Success,andCohesiveness,FactorsInfluencingCohesiveness(continued),SizeLargergroupshaveamoredifficulttimebecomingandstayingcohesive.Largegroupshaveamoredifficulttimeagreeingongoalsandmoreproblemscommunicatingandcoordinatingeffortstoachievethosegoals.,FactorsInfluencingCohesiveness(continued),ToughnessofInitiationGroupsthataretoughtogetintotendtobemoreattractivethanthosethatareeasytojoin.,ConsequencesofCohesiveness,Ismoreorlessgroupcohesivenessdesirable?Whataretheconsequencesofgroupcohesiveness?,ConsequencesofCohesiveness(continued),MoreParticipationinGroupActivitiesThereismoreparticipationincohesivegroupsintermsoflowervoluntaryturnoverandabsenteeism,andgreatercommunication.,ConsequencesofCohesiveness(continued),MoreConformityHighlycohesivegroupsareabletoinducegreaterconformitytogroupnorms.Membersofcohesivegroupsareespeciallymotivatedtoengageinactivitiesthatwillkeepthegroupcohesive.Canapplypressuretodeviantstogetthemtocomplywithgroupnorms.,ConsequencesofCohesiveness(continued),MoreSuccessCohesivenesscontributestogroupsuccess.Cohesivegroupsaregoodatachievingtheirgoals.Groupcohesivenessisrelatedtoperformance.Thereisareciprocalrelationshipbetweensuccessandcohesiveness.Whyarecohesivegroupseffectiveatgoalaccomplishment?,ConsequencesofCohesiveness:Summary,Inhighlycohesivegroups,theproductivityofindividualgroupmembersissimilartoothermembers;inlesscohesivegroups,thereismorevariationinproductivity.Highlycohesivegroupstendtobemoreorlessproductivethanlesscohesivegroups,dependingonanumberofvariables.Cohesivenessismorelikelytopayoffwhenthetaskrequiresmoreinterdependence.,HypotheticalProductivityCurvesForGroupsVaryinginCohesiveness,SocialLoafing,Thetendencytowithholdphysicalorintellectualeffortwhenperformingagrouptask.Socialloafingisamotivationproblem.ThetendencyforsocialloafingisprobablymorepronouncedinindividualisticNorthAmericathaninmorecollectiveandgroup-orientedcultures.Socialloafinghastwodifferentforms.,TheFreeRiderEffect,Inthefreeridereffect,peoplelowertheirefforttogetafreerideattheexpenseoftheirfellowgroupmembers.,TheSuckerEffect,Inthesuckereffect,peoplelowertheireffortbecauseofthefeelingthatothersarefreeriding.Theyaretryingtorestoreequityinthegroup.Whataresomewaystocounteractsocialloafing?,CounteractingSocialLoafing,MakeindividualperformancemorevisibleKeepgroupsizesmall.MakesurethattheworkisinterestingIfworkisinvolving,intrinsicmotivationshouldcounteractsocialloafing.IncreasefeelingsofindispensabilityUsetrainingandthestatussystemtoprovidegroupmemberswithuniqueinputs.,CounteractingSocialLoafing(continued),IncreaseperformancefeedbackIncreasefeedbackfromtheboss,peers,andcustomers.RewardgroupperformanceMembersaremorelikelytomonitorandmaximizetheirownperformanceandthatoftheircolleagueswhenthegroupreceivesrewardsforeffectiveness.,WhatIsaTeam?,Theterm“team”isgenerallyusedtodescribe“groups”inorganizationalsettings.TeamshavebecomeamajorbuildingblockoforganizationsandarenowquitecommoninNorthAmerica.Researchhasshownimprovementsinorganizationalperformanceintermsofbothefficiencyandqualityasaresultofteam-basedworkarrangements.,CollectiveEfficacy,Whenitcomestoteams,collectiveefficacyisimportanttoensurehighperformance.Collectiveefficacyconsistsofsharedbeliefsthatateamcansuccessfullyperformagiventask.,DesigningEffectiveWorkTeams,AccordingtoJ.RichardHackman,aworkgroupiseffectivewhen:Itsphysicalorintellectualoutputisacceptabletomanagementandtootherpartsoftheorganizationthatusethisoutput.Groupmembersneedsaresatisfiedratherthanfrustratedbythegroup.Thegroupexperienceenablesmemberstocontinuetoworktogether.,DesigningEffectiveWorkTeams(continued),Groupeffectivenessoccurswhen:Higheffortisdirectedtowardthegroupstask.Whengreatknowledgeandskillaredirectedtowardthetask.Whenthegroupadoptssensiblestrategiesforaccomplishingitsgoals.Onewaytodesigngroupstobemoreeffectiveistomakethemself-managedworkteams.,Self-ManagedWorkTeams(SMWTs),Workgroupsthathavetheopportunitytodochallengingworkunderreducedsupervision.Thegroupsregulatemuchoftheirownmembersbehaviour.Criticalsuccessfactorsofself-managedteamsinclude:Thenatureofthetask.Thecompositionofthegroup.Varioussupportmechanisms.,TasksforSelf-ManagedTeams,Tasksassignedtoself-managedworkteamsshouldbecomplexandchallenging.Theyshouldrequirehighinterdependenceamongteammembersforaccomplishment.Thetasksshouldhavethequalitiesofenrichedjobs.,CompositionofSelf-ManagedTeams,StabilityGroupmembershipshouldbefairlystable.SizeSelf-managedteamsshouldbeassmallasfeasible.ExpertiseGroupmembersshouldhaveahighlevelofexpertiseaboutthetaskathandaswellassocialskills.,CompositionofSelf-ManagedTeams(continued),DiversityGroupmembersshouldbesimilarenoughtoworkwelltogetheranddiverseenoughtobringavarietyofperspectivesandskillstothetaskathand.Onewayofmaintainingappropriategroupcompositionistoletthegroupchooseitsownmembers.,SupportingSelf-ManagedTeams,Anumberofsupportfactorscanassistself-managedteamsinbecomingandstayingeffective.Reportsofproblemswithteamscanusuallybetracedbacktoinadequatesupport.,SupportingSelf-ManagedTeams(continued),TrainingMembersofself-managedteamsrequireextensivetraininginareassuchastechnicaltraining,socialskills,languageskills,andbusines