词汇学chapter one.ppt

ChapterOneIntroduction:,Word,VocabularyandLexicology,Polonius:Whatdoyouread,mylord?Hamlet:Words,words,words.(W.Shakespeare.Hamlet),Contents,1.1TheNotionofWord1.1.1Dowordsexist?1.1.2Bloomfieldsdefinitionofword1.1.3Characteristicsofwords1.2TheOrganizationofEnglishVocabulary1.2.1Thesyntagmaticandparadigmaticrelations1.2.2Wordclasses1.2.3Lexicalfields1.3LexicologyandOtherLevelsofLinguisticAnalysis1.3.1Lexicologyandphonology1.3.2Lexisandgrammar:twoformsofpatterning1.3.3Lexicologyandsemantics1.4Summary,1.1TheNotionofWord,1.1.1Dowordsexist?1.1.2Bloomfieldsdefinitionofword1.1.3Characteristicsofwords,1.1TheNotionofWord,1.1.1Dowordsexist?Thereisnothinginthespeechsignaltoindicatewhereonewordendsoranotherbegins.Thus,thesentenceTherearenospacesbetweenspokenwordscouldberepresentedontheleveloftheacousticsignalasTherearenospacesbetweenspokenwords,Butwehavealreadyseenthatthespellingsystemismisleadingasfarasthephoneticpropertiesoflexicalitemsareconcerned,sothereisnoreasontotaketheboundariesimposedbythewrititngsystemtooseriously.Moreover,theseparationofwordsbyspacesdoesnotalwayscorrespondtofunctionalrealities.,1.1.2Bloomfieldsdefinitionofword,“Afreeformthatdoesnotconsistentirelyoflesserfreeformsisaword.Thus,boy,whichadmitsofnofurtheranalysisintomeaningfulparts,isaword;boyish,althoughcapableofsuchanalysis,isaword,becauseoneofitsconstituents,the-ish,isaboundform;otherwords,suchasreceive,perceive,remit,permit,consistentirelyofboundforms”.(Bloomfield1933),1.1.3Characteristicsofwords,First,thewordisanuninterruptibleunit.Whenelementsareaddedtoawordtomodifyitsmeaning,theyareneverincludedwithinthatword.Theyrespecttheinternalstabilityofthewordandareaddedeitheratthebeginningasprefixesofthewordorattheendassuffixes.,Second,thewordmayconsistofoneormoremorphemes.whenitconsistsofonemorphemeonly,thenitcannotbebrokendownintosmallermeaningfulunits,e.g.dog,hand.Thesearecalledsimplewords.Whenwordsconsistofmorethanonemorpheme,theymaybeeithercomplexorcompound.,Third,thewordoccurstypicallyinthestructureofphrases.Morphemesareusedtobuildwords,wordstobuildphrases,phrasestobuildclauses,andclausestobuildsentences.Thisisthetypicalmappingoflowerlevelintohigherlevelunits.,Finally,itisalsoanimportantcharacteristicofeachwordthatitshouldbelongtoaspecificwordcalssorpartofspeech.Wherethesameformappearsinmorethanoneclass,asrequentlyhappensinEnglish,weregardthevariousoccurrencesasseparatewords.,1.2TheOrganizationofEnglishVocabulary,1.2.1Thesyntagmaticandparadigmaticrelations1.2.2Wordclasses1.2.3Lexicalfields,1.2TheOrganizationofEnglishVocabulary,1.2.1ThesyntagmaticandparadigmaticrelationsThesyntagmatic/paradigmaticdistinctionisoneoftheSaussureandistinctionsthathavebeenofgreatimportanceinthedevelopmentofstructuralism.,Thesyntagmaticrelationswhichaunitcontractsarethosewhichitcontractsbyvirtueofitscombinationwithotherunitsofthesamelevel.Forexample,thewordoldissyntagmaticallyrelatedwiththedefinitearticletheandthenounmanintheexpressiontheoldman.,Theparadigmaticrelationscontractedbyunitsarethosewhichholdbetweenaparticularunitinagivensyntagmandotherunitswhicharesubstitutableforitinthesyntagm.Forexample,oldisparadigmaticallyrelatedwithyoung,tallinexpressionsliketheoldman,theyoungman,thetallman.,Thenotionofparadigmaticrelationisofspecialrelevancehere.AccordingtodeSaussure,everywordisinvolvedinanetworkofassociationswhichconnectitwithothertermsinthelnguage.Someoftheseassociationsarebasedonsimilarityofmeaning,othersarepurelyformal,stillothersinvolvebothformandmeaning.IndeSaussuresgraphicformula,agiventermislikethecenterofaconstellation,thepointwhereaninfinitenumberofco-ordinatedtermsconverge.,1.2.2Wordclasses,Traditionalgrammarsgenerallydistinguisheightwordclasses,orpartsofspeech:moun,pronoun,verb,adjective,adverb,preposition,conjunctionandinterjection.Theeightwordclassesmaybesubdividedbroadlyintoopenclasses(thefirstfive)andclosedclasses(thesecondthree).,openclass:opentotheadmissionofnewitemsandhasacomparativelylargemembership.Newmembersmaybeformedbymeansoftheprocessesoflexicalmorphology,orbyborrowingfromanotherlanguage.closeclass:relativelyfixedintheirmembership.Forexample,thedemonstrativesthis,that,theseandthose,asubclassofpronouns,haveremainedthesamesincethetimeofShakespeare.,WordclassesinHallidayanlinguistics,commonnounproperpronounnominalsadjectivenumeraldeterminer,lexicalverbauxiliaryfiniteverbalspreposition,adverblinkeradverbialsconjunctionbindercontinuative,1.2.3Lexicalfields,AccordingtoLyons,whathasnowcometobeknownasthetheoryofsemanticorlexicalfieldwasfirstputforwardassuchbyanumberofGermanandSwissscholarsinthe1920sand1930s.,Thelexicalfieldtheorylooksthevocabularyofalanguageasanintegratedsystemoflexemesinterrelatedinsense.Thesystemisinconstantflux.Anybroadeninginthesenseofonelexemeinvolvesacorrespondingnarrowinginthesenseofoneormoreofitsneighbors.,Thesystemoflexemesismainlycharacterizedbythegeneral-particularandpart-wholerelationships,whichholdnotonlybetweenindividuallexemesinthelexicalfieldwithinwhichthheyarebestinterpreted,butbetweenspecificlexicalfieldsandthevocabularyasawhole.,Lexicalfieldisanimportantorganizationalprincipleofvocabulary.Thisprincipleorganizesvocabularyintogroupsofwordswhichbelongtoparticularactivitiesorareasofspecialistknowledge,suchasthetermsincookingorsailing,orthevocabularyusedbydoctors,coalminersormountainclimbers.Oneeffectoflexicalfieldistheuseofspecialisttermslikephonemeinlinguisticsorgigabyteincomputering.,Morecommon,though,istheuseofdifferentsensesforaword,forexample:Blanketverb.tocoveraswithablanket.Blanketverb.Sailing.toblockanothervesselswindbysailingclosetoitonthewindwardside.Ledgernoun.Bookkeeping.themainbookinwhichacompanysfinancialrecordsarekept.Ledgernoun.Angling.atracethatholdsthebaitabovethebottom.,LexicalFieldofEnglishVocabulary,TotalEnglishvocabularyLexicalfield(1)(colors)Lexicalfield(2)(vehicles)Lexicalfield(3)(toys)Lexicalfield(4)(kinship-terms),DictionariesrecognizetheeffectoflexicalfieldsbyincludinginlexicalentrieslabelslikeBanking,Medicine,Angling,etc.asinourexamplesabove.Anothereffectoflexicalfieldsisthatlexicalrelationsaremorecommonbetweenlexemesinthesamefield.Thuspeakpartofamountainisanearsynonymofsummit,whilepeakpartofahatisanearsynonymofvisor.,1.3LexicologyandOtherLevelsofLinguisticAnalysis,1.3.1Lexicologyandphonology1.3.2Lexisandgrammar:twoformsofpatterning1.3.3Lexicologyandsemantics,1.3LexicologyandOtherLevelsofLinguisticAnalysis,Lexicologyisonlyonepossibleleveloflinguisticanalysis,othersbeingphonology,grammarandsemantics.,1.3.1Lexicologyandphonology,Asthestudyofsoundsystem,phonologyseemsnottobemuchconnectedwithlexicology.Butitisnotcompletelytrue.Theinterdependencebetweenthetwolevelsoflinguisticanalysiscanbeillustratedinthefollowingaspects.,First,thedifferencebetweentwootherwiseidenticallexicalitemscanbereducedtoadifferenceofasinglesoundunit.Forexample,bitandbid,patandpad,grossandgloss,etc.Thesepairsofworddifferonlyinonesoundunitandtheyareeachaminimalpairinphonologicalterm.Thisdifference,however,hasaseriouseffectattheleveloflexicologybecauseitbringsustotallydifferentlexicalitems.,Second,suprasegmentalfeaturesalsodifferentiateotherwiseidenticalitems.Stress,forexample,differentiatestheverbandnounformofsuchwordsascombine,convict,insult,produce,record,etc.Compundsprovideanothergoodexampleinthispoint.themajordifferencebetweencompoundandtheircorrespondingsyntacticcombinationsliesinstress.,1.3.2Lexisandgrammar:twoformsofpatterning,Therearetwokindsofopinionconcerningtherelationshipbetweenlexisandgrammar.Thefirstkindofopinionisthatlexisandgrammarrepresenttwokindsoflinguisticpatterningwhicharequalitativelyaswellasquantitativelydifferent.Thedifferencecanbesummarizedasfollows:,(1)Grammarinvolvessystemtypechoices.(2)Grammaticalsystemsareboundedonlybypossibility.(3)Grammaticalpatterningsareorganizedinrank.(4)Inlexis,wearenotinterestedinthedifferencebetweentake,took,andtaking,whichispurelygrammaticalanddoesnotaffectcollocation;butweareinterestedinthefactthattakeoffcollocateswithdifferentitemsfromthosethattakeovercollocateswithandbothdifferinthisrespectfromtake.,Thesecondkindofopinionarguesthatlexisandgrammarastwotypesoflinguisticpatterningcannotbeneatlydivided.Amodelforthedescriptionoflanguageformmayrecognizeonlyonekindofpatternandattempttosubsumeallformalrelationswithinit:somegrammaticalmodels,suchasHallidayssystemicgrammar,envisagethatitisthegrammarstasktodistinguishstrongfrompowerfulaswellastodistinguishafromthe;whilealexicographicalmodelinwhichaandthe,aswellasstrongandpowerful,areenteredindictionaryanddescribedbymeansofcitationscouldberegardedasinsimilarwayattemptingtosubsumegrammarunderlexis.,Hallidaymakesthefollowingstatementinhissystemicgrammar:AlanguageisacomplexsemioticsystemcomposedofmultipleLEVELS,orSTRATA(thesetwoareoftenusedsynonymouslyforthisconcept).Thecentralstratum,theinnercoreoflanguage,isthatofgrammar.Tobeaccurate,however,weshouldcallitLEXICOGRAMMAR,becauseitincludesbothgrammarandvocabulary.Thesetwo,grammarandvocabulary,aremerelydifferentendsofthesamecontinuum-theyarethesamephenomenonasseenfromoppositeperspectives.,InHallidayangrammar,languageisorganizedtristratally.Thethreestrataarediscoursesemantics,lexicogrammarandphonology/graphology.Thesestrataareconsideredtoberelated,followingHjemslev,bytheconceptofrealization.Thewording(lexicogrammar)realizes,orencodes,themeaning(semantics).Thewording,inturn,isrealizedbysound/writing.,1.3.3Lexicologyandsemantics,Semanticsisgenerallydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.EversinceOgdenandRichardspublishedtheirclassicbookTheMeaningofMeaning,ithasbeendustomaryforsemanticiststoemphasizethefactthatthenounmeaningandtheverbtomeanthemselveshavemanydistinguishablemeanings.,Therelationshipbetweenlexicologyandsemanticscanbeillustatedbythetwodistinctbutrelatedconceptsacceptabilityandmeaningfulness.Someutteran