英语二语习得读书报告-英文

Book Report on Introduction Second Langue AcquisitionIntroduction Second Langue Acquisition was written by Muriel Saville-Troike who was a famous American professor in Arizona. She contributed a lot to the research of sociolinguistics and applied linguistics. She did many researches and wrote lots of books on these fields. This book is one of her masterpieces. The book was published by Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press and Cambridge University Press in 2008. I choose this book for several reasons. Firstly It is a book paying attention to second language acquisition (SLA) . I am interested in SLA and want to know more about this field. Secondly after its publishment, it became one of the most popular books in SLA. Many learners and teachers learn more knowledge on SLA from this book. Thirdly it analyzes SLA from linguistics, psychology and social contexts. This can let me have a whole understanding of SLA. There are seven chapters in this book. Through those chapters it shows some basic knowledge on SLA from linguistics, psychology and social context. The whole book tries to answer three questions from three scopes. What exactly does the second language(L2) learner come to know? How does the learner acquire the knowledge? Why are some learners more successful than others. Then the book analyses these questions in the following chapters.The first chapter is an introduction of SLA. I know the exactly definition of SLA,the difference between a second language and a foreign language and have a better understanding of first language (L1).The second chapter discusses foundations of SLA. I was shocked by the prevalence of multilingualism when I learned this chapter. The logical problem of language learning promotes researchers to develop different theories to solve it in SLA. The following three chapters are the main body of the whole book. The third chapter is the research on SLA from a linguistic perspective. The fourth chapter is the psychology of second language acquisition.The fifth chapter is about social contexts of second language acquisition. The last two chapters are about the practical use of SLA. The sixth chapter is about acquiring knowledge for L2 use. The last chapter is L2 learning and Teaching. Among this book, I am more interested in some theories in the third chapter. The reason is that I am in favor of linguistics . These theories help me realize the importance of linguistic factors in SLA and have a better understanding of the relationship between linguistics and SLA.This third chapter is bout the linguistics of second language acquisition. I know several approaches about the study of SLA that have been heavily influenced by the field of linguistics. They can be divided into two categories: the internal focus and the external focus. The internal focus is based on Chomskys Universal Grammar while the external focus is based on Functionalism. I pay more attention to theories of internal focus such as Contrastive Analysis, Error analysis and Interlanguage .1 About Contrastive Analysis Contrastive Analysis (CA) is an approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting and explaining learners problems based on a comparison between L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences. It was a great success in that period. The way connecting two languages or more languages together gave people a new method to study and teach L2. It is very necessary for L2 learners or teachers to learn this theory and take advantage of these positive aspects of it.1.1 The development of Contrastive Analysis During 1940s and 1950s Structuralism and Behaviorism were extremely popular. CA appeared just under their affection. CA is a theory whose nature is pedagogical and is created for increasing efficiency in L2 teaching and testing.CA was first stated clearly by Robert Lado in his book Linguistics Across Cultures which was published in 1957. Robert Lado who was an excellent applied linguist intended to find the problems that foreign language learners would have in the process of learning their L2. This theory looks the study of L2 as a contrastive process. According to the notions, CA analyses the surface forms of both L1 and L2 systems. It also describes and compares the languages following a bottom-upsequence. We are all very familiar that linguistics contains phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. When learners begin to learn a foreign language, they will truly contrast L1 and L2. Then it must has a sequence that decides which one should be contrasted first. Linguists studying CA found the bottom-uppriority for language. Charles Fries , who was a leading linguist to L2 teaching, makes this priority very clear: In learning a new language,.the chief problem is not at first that of learning vocabulary items. It is, first, the mastery of the sound system.It is, second, the mastery of the features of arrangement that constitute the structure of the language (Fries 1945:3)1.2 Two assumptions of Contrastive AnalysisThe first assumption is under the affection of behaviorist psychology. In CA language acquisition was first treated as a habit formation which is a process of stimulus-response-reinforcement. Under this assumption, linguists believe that practice makes perfect. People learning L2 need to pay attention to listening, imitation and repetition in order to help learners form habits. This can be useful for L2 learners to remember something . Learners can say words and sentences unconsciously. A long time repetition can give learners a lifelong impression. But we must recognize that this method has overtly disadvantages. Learners just remember but they never try to create new sentences. Many sentences they recited are meaningless. For example, whats this?-This is my eye. We never use this sentence in a daily conversation. Nowadays none use this method alone in SLA.The second assumption of CA is that there is transfer in language learning. Every normal people can grasp his or her L1 as young children. When we begin to learn a L2, we will transfer some knowledge acquired in L1 into L2 unconsciously. Because of the differences and similarities in these languages, there are positive transfer and negative transfer. If the same structure is appropriate in both languages, it is called positive transfer. For example when the sentence structure of Chinese and English are bothSVO, Chinese learners can easily create English sentences appropriately. Such as I like school, I want an apple and He has a sister are much easier for Chinese students to learn. Of course, there is negative transfer when the L1 structure is used inappropriately. For example, in French every noun can be divided as feminine gender, masculine gender and neutral gender while English does not have this classification. This will be strange when English learners study French as L2. For learning L2, the easiest structures are those that exist in L1 with the same form, meaning, and distribution and can have positive transfer into L2. As for the most difficult structures are those that having partial overlap but have different form, meaning and distribution and can easily make negative transfer.How to take advantage of the positive aspects of these two assumptions is a problem that needs lots of researches. As L2 learners we all wish that we can use L2 proficiently and appropriately. On one hand we must try to realize the positive transfer between L1 and L2. On the other hand we should try to avoid interference.1.3 Evaluations of Contrastive Analysis (1) CA stimulates the preparation of hundreds of comparative grammars. Its analytic procedures have been usefully applied to descriptive studies and to translation, including computer translation. (2) There has been a more recent revival and revision of and extension of the scope of analysis to domains of cross-cultural communication and rhetoric. (3) Contrastive Analysis cannot analyze the logical problem why learners can know more than they have heard and they have been taught. (4) It lacks evidences to support itself. Many errors analyzing by CA do not occur in practical language use. (5) CA does not account for many learners errors and much predicted positive transfer does not materialize. (6) Instructional materials produced according to this approach are language-specific and unsuitable for speakers with different native languages.2 About Error AnalysisError Analysis (EA) is a great success in the study of SLA. It is different from any other prior theories. EA is the first approach having an internal focus on learners creative ability to construct language. EA is different from CA that we have discussed before. EA is based on the description and analysis of actual learner errors in L2 not just contrasts L1 and L2 from a structural level.2.1 The development of Error Analysis(1) learners and researchers began to realize these problems in CA. Linguists and researchers find many problems in CA. Firstly , many errors that CA analyzed dont exist in real L2 use. Secondly, people cannot find enough evidence to analyze and support that actual errors in L2 learning are caused by transfer. These problems promoting linguists to discovery new approaches.(2) Following the population of Noam Chomskys Transformational-Generative Grammar, people began to realize the essence of learning a language. It is not enough for learners to memorize surface structures but more important to grasp those underlying rules. Language is a dynamic system so that learners can understand and create millions of sentences they never heard before. If learners want to learn a language better they must try to find the underlying rules. The exclusive focus on surface-level forms and patterns by structural linguists shifted to pay attention to underlying rules.(3) Under this influence from linguistics and related developments in psychology, more evidences can prove that inner forces drive learning. These behaviorists assumption that habit formation accounting for language acquisition was seriously questioned by many linguists and psychologists. People finally realized that SLA was not just a process of habit formation. SLA had a significate relationship with psychology. Learning a language is a positive process instead of a passive process of stimuli-response. Later behaviorism was replaced by mentalism which emphasizes the innate capacity of language learners rather than on external influence.(4) S.Pit Corders article on the significance of learners error was the most influential work launching Error Analysis as an approach in SLA. This article helps linguists understand that errors were not a bad habit. On the contrary, learners can have a better understanding of their learning process through errors . Errors are windows into the language learners mind. Errors are a part of learning. Through errors, learners can test their own strategies and take right way to learn. Learning and analyzing errors can help learners have a better understanding of these interferences during language transferring.(5) SLA was no longer treated as a part of language teaching as CA. More and more attention had been paid to SLA. SLA came to be thought as an independent subject in linguistics. More and more researchers supported to separated issues in SLA from pedagogical concerns. SLA becomes an independent subject in their own.2.2 The process for analyzing learners errors(1) Collection of samples of learners language. There are two ways to get scientific samples. Firstly researchers can gather samples of different learners on same topic or task. Secondly researchers can gather a few learners samples during days, weeks, months, or even years. Samples gather by these two ways can be used in later to analyze errors in them.(2) Identification of errors. In this process, we should first distinguish errors and mistakes. Errors are caused by lacking of L2 knowledge while mistakes are caused by other reasons for example a lapse in memory. In this theory, we pay attention to errors not mistakes. At this stage, the identification of errors is very important.(3) Description of errors. In order to analyze, errors are usually classified according to language level (whether an error is semantical, morphological, phonological,pragmatical, etc), general linguistic category (such as auxiliary system and negative construction). They can be specific linguistic elements(preposition, verb formation).(4) Explanation of errors. This is the essential part of the process. There are two reasons for causing errors. The first one is interlingual factor which is caused by negative transfer from L1 to L2. The second one is intralingual factor within language. Intralingual errors are developmental errors which may be caused for incomplete L2 rules or overgeneralization. As for interlingual errors, there are some interferences from L1. While as for intralingual errors, learners are not affected by L1 but have some problems within L2. Distinguishing interlingual errors and intralingual errors is truly hard in some samples.(5) Evaluation of errors. Affected by interlingual factors and intralingual factors, learners cannot avoid all errors. When errors occur, learners should evaluate these error. Learners need to judge whether errors are serious or just have little affection. This depends on different situations. If these errors occur between friends communication, they maybe dont affect the meaning. On the contrary, if a small error occurs in a very formal situation, it may bring a battle. This can tell the significance of EA.2.3 Evaluations of Error Analysis(1) EA is the first approach having an internal study of learners ability in language study. It is a big success in changing learners attitude toward SLA. After this theory, learners and researchers realize the important affection of psychology on SLA.(2) EA promotes the separation of SLA from pedagogical concerns. More and more people believe that SLA is an independent science.(3) Ambiguity in classification. It is hard to have a clear division between interlingual errors and intralingual errors. If a Chinese L1 speaker omits number and gender inflections in French . Because Chinese does not have number and gender inflections, this maybe an interlingual error. It can also be said a universal development as a intralingual error.(4) Lack of positive data. This theory just focus on errors in SLA. This cannot tell what the learners can acquire through this process. If learners pay more attention to these errors, they will overlook the correct use.(5) Potential for avoidance. Without errors does not mean proficiency of L2. Learners may try to avoid using difficult structures and rules in L2. This is truly a phenomenon existing in practical language use. EA cannot reveal this problem.3 About Interlanguage Researchers find that it is hard or even impossible for L2 learners to reach the native language level. Learners feel very puzzled about the state of language learning. Then more and more linguists suggest that there is an intermediate state in language learning. Selinker was the first one to declare clearly the term Interlanguage to refer to the intermediate state of a learners language as it moves toward to the target language. He treated interlanguage as a creative process. This famous linguist also emphasized that the interlanguage was a third language system and it was different from both L1 and L2.3.1 Characteristics of an interlanguage(1) Systematic. As the bridge between L1 and L2, the interlanguage is organized by rules that L2 learners have already grasped. These rules can be discovered through the language that learners used at that time. An interlanguage contains both correct use and errors which learners can produce and interpret.(2) Dynamic. As an intermediate state of language learning, an interlanguage is dynamic. The system of rules in learners mind change frequently affected by many factors. As learners receive more input and interaction, they can grasp more rules in SLA. Learners can produce and analyze more new sentences. Although the interlanguage is systematic, differences in context result different patterns of language use. More interlanguage developments will occur during the process of language learning.(3) Reduced system. As we discussed in EA, learners always try to avoid the use of difficult structures in L2. Because learners are afraid of making errors. The interlanguage can clearly show this phenomenon by using less complex grammatical structures. The reduce system is showed both in form and function. 3.2 Evaluations of Interlanguage(1) The interlanguage helps learners have a clear outline of language learning. It gives learners a new way to see the language they have learned.(2) The interlanguage as an independent system differing from L1 and L2 has been high productive in the study of SLA. More and more linguists pay attention to this theory. It helps SLA find a new way to develop. Learners and linguists all want to know how to pass the interlanguage level and reach the L2 level. It deeply aff