土建英语作业(中英文对照翻译)

FoundationsAll structures designed to be supported by the earth, including buindings, bridges, earth fills, earth and rock and concrete dams,consist of two parts. These are the superstructure, or upper part, and the substructure element which interfaces the superstructure and supporting ground. In the case of earth fills and dams, there is often not a clear line of demarcation between the superstructure and substructure. The foundation can be defined as the substructure and that adjacent zone of soil and rock which will be affected by both the substructure element and its loads.The foundation engineer is that person who by reason of experience and training can be produce solutions for design problems involving this part of the engineered system. In this context,foundation engineering can be defined as the science and art of applying the principles of soil and structural mechanics together with engineering judgement to solve the interfacing problem.The foundation engineer is concerned directly with the structural members which affect the transfer of load from the superstructure to the soil such that the resulting soil stability and estimated deformations are tolerable.Since the design geometry and location of the substructure element often have an effect on how the soil responds,the foundation engineer must be reasonably versed in structural design. Foundations for structures such as buildings, from the smallest residential to the tallest high-rise, and bridges are for the purpose of transmitting the superstructure load. These loads come from column-type members with stress intensities rangeing from perhaps 140MPa for steel to 10MPa for concrete to the supporting capacity of the soil, which is seldom over 500kPa but more often on the order of 200 to 250kPa. Almost any reasonable structure can be built and safely supported if there is unlimited financing.Unfortunately, in the real situation this is seldom, if ever, the case, and the foundation engineer has the dilemma of making a decision under much less than the ideal condition, Also, even though the mistake may be buried, the results from the error are not and can show up relatively soon-and probably before any statute of limitations expires. These are reported cases where the foundation defects have shown up either during construction of superstructure or immediately thereafter. Since the superstructure is buried, or is beneath the superstructure, in such a configuration that access will be difficult, should foundation inadequacies develop after the superstructure is in place; it is common practice to be conservative. A one or two percent over design, in these areas produces a larger potential investment return than in the superstructure. The designer is always faced with the question of what constitutes a safe , economical design while simultaneously contending with the inevitable natural soil heterogeneity at a site. Nowadays that problem may be compounded by land scarcity requiring reclamation of areas which have been used as sanitary landfills, garbage dumps, or even hazardous waste disposal areas. Still another complicating factor is that the act of construction can alter the soil properties considerably from those used in the initial analyse of the foundation.These factors result in foundation design becoming so subjective and difficult to quantify that two design firms might come up with completely different designs which would perform equally satisfactory. Cost would likely be the distinguishable feature for the preferred design. This problem and the widely differing solutions would depend, for example, on the folling. 1)What constitutes satisfactory and tolerable settlement ; how much extra could, or should , be spent to reduce estimated settlements from say 30 to 15mm? 2)Has the client been willing to authorize an adequate soil exploration program?what kind of soil variability did the soil borings indicate?Would additional borings actually improve the foundation recommendations? 3)Can the buildings be supported by the soil using? 4)What are the consequences of a foundation failure in term of public safety? What is the likelihood of a lawsuit if the foundation does not perform adequately? 5)Is sufficient money available for the foundation? It is not unheard of that the foundation alone would cost so much that the project is not economically feasible. It may be necessary to abandon the site in favor of one where foundation costs are affordable? 6)What is the ability of the local construction force ? It is hardly sensible to design an elaborate foundation if no one can built it, or if it is so different in design that the contractor includes a large uncertainty factor in the bid. 7)What is the engineering ability of the foundation engineer? While this factor is listed last,this is not of least importance in economical design. Obviously engineers have different levels of capability just as in other professions and in the trades such as carpenters, electricians ,and painters. If the foundation fails because of any cost shaving, the client tends to be quickly lose appreciation for the temporary financial benefit which accrued. At this point , facing heavy damages and a lawsuit, the client is probably in the poorest mental state of all the involved parties. Thus, one should always bear in mind that absolute dollar economics may not produce good foundation engineering. The foundation engineer must look at the entire system,the building purpose, probable service-life loading, type of framing, soil profile, construction methods, and construction costs to arrive at a design that is consistent with the client needs and does not excessively degrade the environment . This must be done with a safety factor which produces a tolerable risk to both the public and the owner. Considering these several areas of uncertainty, it follows that risk and liability insurance for persons engaged in foundation engineering is very costly. In attempts to reduce these costs as well as produces a design , which could be obtained from several engineering firms there is active discussion of having the foundation engineer submit the proposed design to a broad of qualified engineers for a peer review. 中文翻译： 地基基础 所有由土基础的结构，包括建筑物，桥梁，土堤，土石坝和混凝土坝，都由两部分组成，它们是上部结构或者上面的部分和下部结构单元，下部结构介于上部结构和支撑地层之间。对于土堤和坝来说，往往是没有明确的划分界限。基础可以定义为下部结构，并且临近的土和坝收到下部结构单元和它的负荷的影响。 基础工程师是，一个忧郁有经验和长期训练的原因，可以提供关于这部分的工程系统的设计问题的解决方案的人。在这种情况下，基础工程可以被定义为应用土和结构力学结合工程判断的原则，共同解决类似问题的科学和艺术。由于设计的的几何形状和下部结构单元位置往往对土壤有效果，所以基础工程师在结构设计中必须合理精通的。 那些建筑物结构的基础，从最小的住宅，到最高的高层，和桥梁都是以传递上层建筑负荷为目的。这些荷载来自构件柱形与构件的应力强度，也许从140MPa的钢到10MPa的混凝土。土壤的支撑能力很少超过500kPa，但更多的时候在200250kPa之间。如果工程造价没有限制的话，几乎任何合理的结构，都可以建立和安全支撑.但不幸的是，在实际情况中，几乎是不可能的，如果有这种情况的话也是极少见的，基础工程师也比理想的条件下更难以作出决定，另外，即使错误可以掩埋，结果也不可以掩埋，可能相当快，或许在一切限制性的条例到期之前，就会显现出来。 这些被报道的案例中基础缺陷显现或许在上部结构工程建造期间出现或者紧随其后的出现。由于上部结构被掩埋，或者上部结构的下方，在这样的配置下，通道将是困难的，或许基础缺陷，出现在上部结构之后是合理的地方，它是常见的做法是保守的。如果将设计值超过的一个或两个百分点在这些地方，可以比上层建筑产生更大的潜在投资回报。设计师总是面临着怎样构成一个安全，经济的设计，同时关于不可避免的自然土壤不均匀性的问题的争论在网站上上演。如今，这一问题可能会由于土地的稀缺而加剧了，在这种情况下要求土地的填海工程已采用卫生填埋场，垃圾场，甚至是危险废物处置领域的地区。还有一个复杂因素是，建设的行为可以从基础的初始设计中改变土壤的属性.这些因素导致基础设计变得如此主观的，难以量化，完全不同的两个设计公司可能提出完全不同的设计方案，但结果执行同样令