土地管理专业英语2-谭淑豪主编

Concepts of Land Economics Raleigh Barlowe. Land resource economics,1986Like most fields，land economics has several specialized concepts and terms that must be understood if they are to be useful as tools of analysis These terms are introduced and explained in the chapters that followAt this point，emphasis is given to four basic ideas：（1）the economic concept of land and land resources，（2）a classification of land uses by type，（3）the concept of land usecapacity，and（4）the concept of highest and best use与大多数研究领域一样，土地经济学也有若干专门概念和术语作为分析工具，必须弄懂它们是否有用。这些概念大多在以后各个章节里将作介绍和解释。在这里，只重点讲四个基本的土地经济概念：（1）土地和土地资源的经济学概念，（2）土地利用分类，（3）土地利用能力的概念，（4）最高层次或最佳土地用途概念。Economic concept of land 土地的经济学概念 The term land suggests different things to different people, depending on their outlook and their interests at the moment1 In its most widely accepted use，this term refers to the solid portion of the earths surfaceBut it may also apply to a nation，a people，or a political division of the earths surfacePeople often refer to ground，soil，or earth as land and speak of land as something on which they can walk，build a house，plant a garden，or grow a cropThese commonly accepted definitions of land should not be confused with the more technical concepts use by lawyers and economists. 2 土地这一术语对不同的人有不同的含义，这取决于人们在当时所持的观点和利益取向。就广义而言，这一术语是指地球表面的固态部分，但也可以指地球上的某个国家，民族或政治区域。人们往往把地面、土壤或泥土视为土地，或者把土地说成是人们可以在上面行走、建房开辟花园或者种植庄稼的东西。这些为人们普遍接受的土地概念，不要同律师和经济学家所使用的专门术语相混淆。 From a legal standpoint，land or real estate may be considered as any portion of the earths surface over which ownership rights might be exercised These rights relate not just to surface area but also to things such as trees，which are attached to the surface by nature；to buildings and other improvements attached by man；and to those objects of value that lie either above or below the surface从法律角度看，土地或不动产可以视为可以行使所有权的地球表面任何部分。这些权利不仅同地球表层面积有关，而且同树木等自然地附着于土地上的东西，同房屋和其他设施等人为着附于土地上的东西以及同那些地上或地下等有价值的东西有关。 Because of their concern over distinctions between land and capital，economists often differ in their opinions regarding the natural of land. Many economists accept broad definitions similar to those used by lawyers; others treat certain aspects of this broad concept as capital. 3 For our purposes，the economic concept of land can be viewed as being synonymous with the legal concept of real estate. It involves the natural and man-made resources that individuals,groups,or communities control through possession of portions of the earths surface由于经济学家关心土地和资本的区别，所以他们对土地的性质往往有不同的观点。许多经济学家赞成律师们所使用的广义土地定义；而另一些经济学家则是把这种广义的土地视为资本。按照我们的观点，土地的经济学概念可以看作于与不动产的法律概念基本相似，它是受个人、组织或者团体控制的附着于地球表面的、自然和人工资源的总和”。 This broad concept of land includes all of the earth surface-water and ice as well as groundIn addition to building sites，farm soil, growing forests，mineral deposits，and water resources，it also involves such natural phenomena as access to sunlight，rain, wind，and changing temperatures and location with respect to markets and other areasMoreover，it includes all those man-made improvements that are attached to the surface of the earth and cannot be easily separated it. 4土地的这种广义概念，包括了整个地球表层，即水和冰以及地面。除了建筑场地、农用地、林木、矿藏和水资源外，土地还包括一些自然现象，如太阳辐射、降雨、风和不断变化的温度，以及相对于市场和其他地方的位置。再者，它还包括了附着于地球表面不能预知分离的所有那些人为的改良设施。Concepts of land 土地的概念 The term land often means different things depending upon the context in which it is used and the circumstances under which it is consideredLike a cut diamond，it has many facetsMost important among these are the views of land as(1) space，(2)nature，(3)a factor of production，(4)a consumption good，(5) situation，(6) property，and(7) capitalOther facets of land may also he notedSome cultural groups view land as a deity that possesses itself and that can exercise certain controls over the people who use itInvestors sometimes see it as a store of wealth that possesses unique advantages over alternative areas of investment. Others have viewed it as a gene bank a potential source of new species and products and as a source of pleasure and recreation. 5 土地一词往往有不同的含义，这取决于所使用的环境和内容。如同一块切割过的钻石，有许多方面。在这所有观点众人们主要把土地视为1）空间，2）自然界。3）一种生产要素，4）一种消费品，5）位置，6）财产，7）资本。土地含义的其他方面也要注意。有些文化组织将土地看作自我拥有的，掌控着使用这片土地的人们的神。投资者有时把选择投资的具有特殊优势的土地看作财富仓库。还有一些人把土地看作产生新物种和新产品源的基因库或者将土地看作休闲游乐源泉。 Considerable importance is attached in the modern world to the concept of land as situation. 6 This concept involves location with respect to markets, geographic features，others resources，and other countriesIt is significant because the value and use of land is determined largely by its location and accessibility and also because of the economic and political significance that is often attributed to the control of strategic sites现代社会，人们非常重视作为位置的土地概念。这一概念指相对市场、地理特征、其他资源以及其他区域的位置。这一概念很重要，这不仅由于多数土地的利用和价值由其位置和可达性来决定的，还因为战略地点的控制对现代经济和政治的重要意义。The concept of land as property involves real estate and has legal connotations. It is concerned with the areas over which individuals, groups, or sovereign powers exercise rights of possession and use and with the nature of the rights and responsibilities they hold. 7 Property institutions change with time，but the interpretations accepted at any given moment always wield a powerful influence in shaping attitudes and actions concerning land and how it can or should be used.作为财产的土地概念，指不动产并具有法律含义。将土地当作财产意味着支配土地的个人、组织或者君主自这片土地上可以行使占有权和使用权，也包含着他们拥有的土地权利和责任的性质。财产制度随着时间推移而变化，但是，某个时期流行的制度总是对人们的土地的观念和所采取的行动以及可以或应该怎样利用土地有着重大影响。While land may be treated as a unique and separate factor of production，it is often realistic to view it as a type of capital. The early classical economists argued that land was a free gift of nature, whereas capital was man-made. 8 Capital represented past savings and store-up production and was expendable，whereas land was seen as durableThese distinctions have some validity but tend to break down and blend together when they are applied in twilight casesOne might ask，for instance，if one field is land because its owner settled on productive soils while a second is capital because the owner started with poor soil and built up a productive farm unitSimilarly，one may question how free land actually is and how durable soil, forest, and mineral resources are in comparison with capital goods. 9 These problems have led many economists to regard land as a species of capital，while others assert that space and situation are the only singular characteristics of land尽管土地经常被视为生产的一个独立要素，把它看作一种类型的资本还是合适的。这是由于土地和资本之间有着密切的关系。按照早期古典经济学家的观点，人们可以说土地是自然界的免费恩赐，而资本去是人为的，是过去的积累和生产积累的结果，是有限的易耗品；土地则是取之不尽用之不竭的耐用品。这些区分有一定道理，当它们用于边缘地方或交叉情形时，他们通常分开而后合在一起。例如，人们可能要问，有没有这样一种情形，一个农场只有土地，因为该农场主居住在一块很肥沃的土地上，而另一个农场就是资本，因为该农场主从极贫瘠的土地上建起了卓有成效的农场。同样，有人或许要问与其他资本产品相比土地的免费程度如何，以及土壤、森林和矿产资源的耐用性到底如何。这种问题的实质使得许多经济学家将土地视为一种资本，而另一些人则坚持只有空间和位置才是土地的唯一特征。Whether land should be clearly separated from capital is an academic issue and has little bearing on the issues considered hereSuffice it to say that the characteristics of land can be similar to those of capital，Land may be fixed in quantity，durable in nature，and a naturesupplied good from the standpoint of society； but the average investor sees it as a resource that must be purchased or leased like other capital goodsIn this sense, land is capital to the individual even though it may be viewed differently from the standpoint of society. 10 土地是否能与资本截然分开，这样的问题是一个学术问题，但这里并不讨论这个问题。因为说一句土地的特征与资本的特征相似就足够了。土地在数量上是有限的，实质上是耐用的，从社会角度来讲又是一种“无价之物”，但对一般投资者来说土地可以买卖或出租，如同其他资本产品一样。在这种含义上，土地对个人是一种资本，即使从社会角度有不同的看法。 Land resourcesBecause of occasional confusion and lack of agreement regarding the precise meaning of the term land when applied in economics，it is often desirable to speak of land resources or real estate rather than landWith this substitution of terms, it is possible to clarify the general meaning of this central concept and at the time avoid quibbling over details. 11 As used here, the concepts of land resources and real estate are treated as roughly comparable to the economic concept of landThese terms are used interchangeably throughout with no distinction in meaningThe first two terms are concepts representing a merging of the economic and legal concepts of land and definitely Include buildings and other capital improvements attached to the land as well as he natural characteristics of land由于对于经济学中使用“土地”一词的严格含义时常混淆和难以达到概念上的统一，因此，人们往往用土地资源或不动产而不用土地一词。通过术语的更替，就可以将这个关键概念总的含义弄清楚了，同时又避免了在细节上争执不休。在这里所使用的土地资源和不动产这两个概念，可以大致等同于土地的经济概念。这两个概念表示了土地的经济学概念和法律概念间的相互交叠，他们包括建筑物和其他附着与土地之上的资本改良设施以及土地的自然属性。As a descriptive term in economics，land resources is both broader and narrower than the term natural resourcesIt is broader because it includes the man-made improvements that are attached to landNatural resources can involve a broader concept in that it includes all naturegiven resources from the center of the earth to the highest heavens, whereas the term land resources，when treated as an economics concept, is limited to surface together with the thin layer of subsurface and supra-surface resources that people use in their daily lives. 12作为土地经济学中的描述性术语，“土地资源”比“自然资源”的含义既广又窄。说之广是由于“土地资源”包括所有附着于土地之上的人为改良设施。“自然资源”可以有较广的含义，如它包括自地核到天体的所有自然所赋资源。而土地资源在作为一个经济学概念时，只限于地表资源和薄薄的地表层之下以及地表层之上人们可以在日常生活中利用的资源。 Principal types of land use Various classification schemes can be used to describe the principal types of land use found throughout the world. One of the more workable and more inclusive of these calls for the following tenfold classification of land uses 13：Residential lands，commercial and industrial sites，cropland，pasture and grazing land，forestland，mineral land，recreation land，transportation lands，service areas，and barren and waste. 可以用许多分类方法来划分世界上土地利用主要类型。其中一种比较合乎实际且具有较高概括性的分类方法，将土地利用分为十个类型：住宅用地，工商业用地，耕地，林地。牧场和放牧地，矿业用地，娱乐用地，交通用地，服务性用地，裸露的和荒芜的土地。Residential lands and commercial and industrial sites account for most of the land area of cities but cover only a small proportion of the earths surfaceThese uses and their various subclasses are particularly important in the modern world because they represent the areas where threefourths of the residents of the developed nations and almost a third of those of the development countries live and where most economic activity takes placeThey involve the areas most subject to intensive human use and the sites of highest market value. 14居住区和工商业用地占城区面积的绝大部份，但只是地球表面的一个很小的部分。这些利用方式及其各亚类在当今世界特别重要，因为它们代表了绝大多数人，世界上四分之三发达国家的居民和三分之一的发展中国家的居民生活和工作的场所，以及最重要的经济活动发生的地方。这些土地包括了大部分人类集约利用的土地和最高价值的区域。Because of their contributions to agricultural production，the next three classifications are often grouped together as agricultural usesThese uses account for most of the worlds surface land area that has economic value. 15 Cropland includes the cultivated areas used in the production of food, feed，fibers，and other cropsAs a land use concept，it includes not only cropland harvested but also planted areas that suffer from crop failure and cropland areas that temporarily idle or fallow. 16接下来的三种用途，由于它们主要对农业生产而言，所以往往归为农业用地。这三类土地利用类型占有经济价值的总面积的绝大部分。耕地包括所有用于生产食物、纤维和其他作物的土地。作为土地利用的概念，耕地不仅包括收获面积而且还包括无收获的种植面积，以及暂时撂荒和休闲的耕地部分。 Aside from the residual class of barren and waste lands，most of the remaining types of land use may be grouped together as specialuse areasMineral lands vary from open-pit sources of coal or iron ore to the much smaller surface areas required to support the operation of oil wells and underground mines. 17 Recreation lands include parks, beaches, resort areas, racetracks, game preserves, and open space and scenic areas that are used largely for recreation and closely related purposes. Transportation lands include those areas used for highways，streets，alleys，parking purposes，railroads，airports，harbors，and wharvesThe concept of service areas overlaps that of other specialuse areas but applies specifically to uses such as military reservation，prisons，cemeteries，reservoirs，and hydropower sites. 除了荒地和农业用地之外，其他类型的土地利用可以归结为特殊用途。矿区有露天煤矿和铁矿，以及为进行操作只要求很小的表面积的油井和地下矿井。娱乐用地包括公园，海滨，度假胜地，赛车跑道，禁猎区，以及多用于娱乐及相关用途的开放空间和风景区。交通用地包括用作高速公路，街道，街巷，停车场，铁路，机场，港口和码头的土地。服务用地的概念和其他特殊用地有交叉，指专门用于军事保留区，鉴于，目的，水库和发电站的用地。Clearcut classifications of land uses are often complicated by the complementary nature of many uses and by overlapping and multipleuse patternsTracts used primarily for single uses such as cropland，forestry，or industries often contain areas utilized for necessary complementary purposes such as roads，parking，or service usesSites also may be used simultaneously for more than one purpose Large areas in the western United States，for example，are designated as forestlands but at the same time have important values for grazing，recreation，and watershed usessimilarly，a site occupied by a hotel maybe used primarily for residential purposed but at the same time provide commercial，recreation，transportation，and service facilities 要严格区分出不同的土地利用类型通常是很复杂的，因为多种用途的互补性，交叉利用和多种利用方式的存在。单一类型的用地，主要用于耕地，森林，工业的土地净产还会有道路，停车场服务用地作为必要的辅助功能用地。土地也可以同时用作几种用途。比如，在美国西部的指定为林业用地的大块土地同时也作为重要的放牧、休闲和库区用地。同样，一个旅馆的占地可以用作居住，同时又可以提供商业、娱乐、运输和服务设施。Highest and best use 最高最佳利用Most land areas are suited for a variety of usesThe highly valued land found in most central business districts could be used for forestry，grazing，crop production，or residential purposes as well as tor commercial usesIt is used as it is，however，because owners have an economic incentive to use their land resources for those purposes that promise them the highest returnIn this respect they allocate their land resources in accordance with the concept of highest and best use多数土地适宜多种用途。中心商务区的价值高的土地可以用于森林，放牧，耕地，居住或者商业等用途。然而，之所以用作它现在的用途，是因为土地所有者趋于将其土地给予经济动机用于最高收益的用途。从这个角度来说，土地所有者使用他们的土地是遵循最高最佳使用原则的。 Land resources are at their highest and best use when they are used in a manner that provides an optimum return to their operators or to society. 18 Depending on the criteria used, this return may be measured in strictly monetary term, in intangible and social values, or in some combination of these valuesReal estate is ordinarily considered at its highest and best use when it is used for that purpose or that combination of purposes for which it has the highest comparative advantage or least comparative disadvantage relative to other uses当土地资源为其土地经营者或者社会提供最大收益时，土地资源处于最高最佳利用状态。根据所选用标准，这个收益可以用严格的货币单位，无形的社会价值或者这些价值的综合来衡量。当用于一种或多种用途的房地产与其他用途相比优势最大或者劣势最小时，通常被看作是他的最高最佳用途。 The highest and best use of any particular site is often subject to change. 19Like the concept of use-capacity, it can shift with changes in the quality of the land resource, changes in technology, and changes in the demand picture. Sometimes it is affected by zoning ordinances and other public policiesUnder most circumstances，a certain amount of shifting can also be expected to take place in response to the bidding and counter-bidding that goes on between various operators.20任何特定地块的最高最佳用途都会发生变化的，同土地利用能力的概念一样，它随土地资源质量的改变、技术进步的变化，需求状况的变化而变化。有时，它受分区条例和其他公共政策的影响。多数情况下，不同经营者对土地利用竞价时，土地最高最佳利用状态也可能相应发生一定的变化 In modern society，land resources usually earn a higher return when usedfor commercial or industrial purposes than for other types of useAs a result，these uses are usually able to outbid other uses for almost any siteResidentialuses ordinarily have next priority，followed by various types of cropland，pasture, grazing，and forest usesThis simple ordering of land uses suggests a definite profile in which the highestvalue lands at the center of our cities are used for commercial purposes，while areas with successively lower values are used for residential，cropland，grazing，and forestry purposes，respectively当今社会，土地资源用于商业或工业用途比其他用途的收益高。结果是，这些用途往往在任何地方都比其他用途出价高。居住用地往往是次优的，紧接着依次是耕地，牧场，放牧地，和森林用地。这一简单的土地利用排列顺序清楚地说明城市中的高价土地被用作商业用途，而相继价值较低的其他土地分别用作居住用地、耕地、牧草地和林地等。 Profiles of this type represent a generalized average. 21 They are never as fixed or static as they may at first appearVariations from this norm often occur of the differences found in individual type of use classes and because of the tendency of some classes to overlap. 22 Exceptions to this pattern also existSome industrial and commercial uses deliberately seek low-cost sites，and residential uses such as apartment houses occasionally outbid commercial and industrial uses for particular sitesSimilarly，in areas such as the oasis communities of the Sahara Desert，where the supply of arable land is extremely limited，residential quarters may be located on the edge of the desert while the arable land they could occupy is used for food production这种土地利用类型的变化顺序代表了一般性的状况。他们从来不是固定的或者静止在最初的状态上。因为每种土地利用类型中有不同的等级，而且有些等级有重叠的趋势。这种模式之外的情形也存在。一些工商业用地有意识的减灾成本低的地方，有些居住区如公寓在某些地段优势出价比商业和工业用途还高。同样的，在一些地方，比如撒哈拉沙漠不毛之地的柳州上，耕地供给极为有限，居住区可以建在沙漠的边缘，而为生产食物耕地会占据绿洲。 Though the highest and best use of a given unit of land resource at any onetime can usually be computed in monetary terms，differences of opinion frequently arise when weight is given to welfare considerations and non-monetary satisfactions. One landowner may keep a forested area as a woodlot. A successor in ownership may choose to convert it into farmland, residential lots，or possibly a public parkAn individual may feel that a lot should be retained for residential or commercial purposes, while a city may insist that part of it be given up for a street-widening projectA public spirited group may insist that a virgin forest be maintained as a public park，while other groups argue that it be cut to Provide timber for a growing nationThese examples indicate the need for differentiation between the marketplace, or economic, and the social c