行业特制 Error analysis 偏误分析

,ErrorAnalysis,英语语言文学魏琪,1,资料借鉴1,IntroductionofEA,1,ProcedureofEA,2,LimitationsofEA,3,PaperAnalysis,4,Contents,2,资料借鉴1,3,资料借鉴1,IntroductionofEA,1,2,3,4,Definition,Assumptions,Functions,Significance,4,资料借鉴1,DefinitionofEA,1,2,3,4,AclassicaldefinitionwasgivenbyCorder(1973:295-61)asbreachesofcode,thatis,theyarethesignsofanimperfectknowledgeofthecode,forthelearnershavenotyetinternalizedtheformationrulesoftheforeignlanguages.,Brown(1994:205)defineserrorsasanoticeabledeviationfromthegrammarofanativespeaker,reflectingtheInterlanguagecompetenceofthelearner.,James(2001:1)defineserrorssimplyasunsuccessfulbitsoflanguage.,RichardsandPlatt(2002:159)regardserrorastheuseofalinguisticiteminawaywhichafluentornativespeakerofthelanguageregardsasshowingfaultyorincompletelearning.,5,资料借鉴1,Basicassumptions(Brown),02,04,01,03,ErrorsmadebyL2learnershelpunderstandingtheprocessofL2learning.,ErrorsmadebyL2learnerscanbeobserved,analyzed,classifiedanddescribed.,Humanlearninginvolvesmakingerrors.,ErrorsinL2learningareunavoidable.,BasicAssumptions,6,资料借鉴1,FunctionsofEA,01,02,03,TofindoutwhaterrorsaremostlikelytooccurinforeignlanguagelearningTofindthereasonsbehindtheseerrorsTothrowlightonthelearnersmechanismoflanguageacquisition,andfindwaystopredictandpreventtheoccurrenceofsucherrors.,7,资料借鉴1,TheSignificanceoflearnerserrors,8,资料借鉴1,TheSignificanceoflearnerserrors,CORDER(1967,1973)pointedoutthaterrorshavetheoreticalandpracticalsignificance.Theyprovidetheteacherwithinformationabouthowmuchtheleanerhadlearntindicatingtothemtheeffectivenessoftheteachingmaterialsandtechniques.Theyprovidedtheresearcherwithevidenceofhowlanguagewaslearnt;Theyservedasdevicesbywhichthelearnerdiscoveredtherulesofthetargetlanguage.,9,资料借鉴1,10,资料借鉴1,ProcedureofEA,Collection,Explanation,Corder(1974)suggeststhefollowingstepsinEAresearch,Description,Identification,Evaluation,11,资料借鉴1,12,资料借鉴1,Collectionofasampleoflearnerlanguage,SizeofthesampleMassivesampleMassivesampleinvolvescollectingseveralsamplesoflanguageusefromalargenumberoflearnersinordertocompileacomprehensivelistoferrors,representativeoftheentirepopulation.SpecificsampleSpecificsampleconsistsofonesampleoflanguageusecollectedfromalimitednumberoflearners.IncidentalsampleIncidentalsampleinvolvesonlyonesampleoflanguageuseproducedbyasinglelearner.,13,资料借鉴1,Collectionofasampleoflearnerlanguage,FactorstoconsiderLanguage,14,资料借鉴1,Collectionofasampleoflearnerlanguage,FactorstoconsiderLearner,15,资料借鉴1,Collectionofasampleoflearnerlanguage,FactortoconsiderMannerofcollectionNaturalsampleNaturalsamplesaregenerallypreferred.ElicitationElicitationisnottobeconfusedwithtesting.Corderidentifiestwokindsofelicitation:1)ClinicalelicitationClinicalelicitationinvolvesgettingtheinformanttoproducedataofanysort.Example:interview,asklearnerstowriteacomposition2)ExperimentalmethodsExperimentalmethodsinvolvetheuseofspecialinstrumentsdesignedtoelicitdatacontainingthelinguisticfeatureswhichtheresearcherwishestoinvestigate.Example:BilingualSyntaxMeasure,16,资料借鉴1,Collectionofasampleoflearnerlanguage,FactorstoconsiderTimeSpanCross-sectionallyatasinglepointintimeLongitudinallyatsuccessivepointsoveraperiodoftime,17,资料借鉴1,18,资料借鉴1,Identification,MistakesandErrorsErrorsagrammaticalmisusearisefromthelearnerslackofknowledge;thelearnerdoesntknowtherightformorisunabletouselanguagecorrectly.unintentionallydeviantfromthetargetlanguageandnotself-corrigiblebythelearner(failureincompetence)Mistakesapragmaticmisuseoftenoccurwhenlearnersfailtoperformtheircompetence;thelearnerhasalreadylearnedtheknowledgeorskillbutsimplyfailstofunctioncorrectlybecauseoflackofattention,slipofthetongueorotherfactorseitherintentionallyorunintentionallydeviantformsandself-corrigible(failureinperformance).Eventhenativespeakerscannotavoiditsometimes,theycancorrectitbythemselves,19,资料借鉴1,Identification,InCordersarticleThesignificanceoflearnerserrors,hewascarefultodistinguishbetweenerrorsandmistakes.Mistakesareakintoslips-of-tongue.Theyaregenerallyone-time-onlyevents.Thespeakerwhomakesamistakeisabletorecognizeitasamistakeandcorrectitifnecessary.Anerror,ontheotherhand,issystematic.Itislikelytooccurrepeatedlyandisnotrecognizedbythelearnerasanerror.,Howcanwedistinguisherrorsandmistakes?(Ellis),1.tochecktheconsistencyoflearnersperformance.2.toasklearnerstotrytocorrecttheirowndeviantutterances.,20,资料借鉴1,Identification,Peoplewilldoanythingtoseeafreeshow-evenifitisabadone.WhenthenewsgotroundthatacomedyshowwouldbepresentedatourlocalcinemabytheP.andU.BirdSeedCompany,weallrushedtoseeit.Wehadtoqueueforhourstogetinandtheremusthavebeenseveralhundredpeoplepresentjustbeforetheshowbegan.Unfortunately,theshowwasoneofthedullestwehaveeverseen.Thosewhofailedtogetinneednothavefeltdisappointed,asmanyoftheartisteswhoshouldhaveappeareddidnotcome.Theonlyfunnythingsweheardthateveningcamefromtheadvertiseratthebeginningoftheprogramme.Hewasobviouslyverynervousandforsomeminutesstoodawkwardlybeforethemicrophone.Assoonasheopenedhismouth,everyoneburstoutlaughing.Weallknowwhatthepoormanshouldhavesaid,butwhatheactuallysaidwas:ThisisthePooandEeSeedBirdCompany.Goodladies,eveningandgentlemen!,21,资料借鉴1,Identification,Video:Mindyourlanguage,22,资料借鉴1,Identification,Video:Mindyourlanguage,Danielle:-Howmuchisitalettertopost?-IsittosomeoneinEngland?-No,itsaSwissletter.-ASwissletter?-Yes,IwrotetomyboyfriendinSwitzerland.-Well,itismorecorrecttosayyouwanttosendalettertoSwitzerland.-WellIcomehomewithyouandyoucouldteachmealot.,Juan:-Areyoumarried?-Si,ImarriedtoGinaLollabrigida.-Whatsortofajobareyoulookingfor?-Aplentymoneyjob.-Whatsortofworkdoyouwanttodoinordertoearnthisplentymoney.-Plentylittle.Ranjeet:-Pretendyouhaveacold.-Acoldwhat?,Taro:-Goodmorning,Sir.-Itisnotgoodmorningtime.Itisgoodnighttime.-Goodmorning,Sir.-Goodbye.-Midlandonotmybank!Barclaysmybanko.-Andhowdoyouwantit?-Inmoney,please.-Yes,butdoyouwantthirtypoundsintensinonesorfivesorwhat?-CanIhavethirtyfives-No,thatwouldbe150pounds.,23,资料借鉴1,Identification,Proceduresofidentification,Thefirststepistoidentifyovertandcoverterrors.Overterrorsrefertoungrammaticalsentences.Converterrorsrefertosuperficiallywell-formedsentences,butwhichmakenosenseinthecontext.Overterrorisconcernedwithgrammaticality,whilecoverterrordealswithappropriateness.,24,资料借鉴1,Identification,Isthesentencesuperficiallywellformedintermsofthegrammarofthetargetlanguage?,Iftheanswerisnegative.,Iftheanswerispositive.,Doesthenormalinterpretationaccordingtotherulesofthetargetlanguagemakesenseinthecontext?,OvertErrorsexist.,Iftheanswerisnegative.,CovertErrorsexist.,Corder(1971)proposesanelaborateprocedureforidentifyingerrorsinasecondlanguage.,25,资料借鉴1,Identification,Proceduresofidentification,Example:“Imfine,thankyou.”Thissentenceisgrammaticallycorrectatthesentencelevel.Butifitistheanswertothequestion“Whoareyou?”,itisuninterpretableatdiscourselevel.Soitisacoverterror.,26,资料借鉴1,Identification,Proceduresofidentification,Thesecondstepistoprovideinterpretationsandconstructwell-formedsentencesinthetargetlanguage.Ifasentencecontainsovertorcoverterrors,aplausibleinterpretationcanbeputonthesentenceincontext.Ifthesentenceisinterpretable,reconstructasell-formedsentenceinthetargetlanguageandthencompareareconstructedsentencewiththeoriginalidiosyncraticsentencetofindoutinwhatrespecttheydiffer.Ifthesentenceisuninterpretable,translatethesentenceliterallyintothemothertongueandseeifitisunderstandableinthecontext.Ifitisso,retranslatethesentenceintothetargetlanguagetoprovideareconstructedsentence.But,ifthemothertongueofalearnerisnotknownortherestructuredsentenceisimpossibletounderstand,holditinstore.,27,资料借鉴1,Identification,28,资料借鉴1,29,资料借鉴1,Description,Comparison:E.g.Hecomedyesterday.Hecameyesterday.,30,资料借鉴1,Description,Taxonomyoferrors:LinguisticcategoriesLinguisticcategoriescanbechosentocorrespondcloselytothosefoundinstructuralsyllabusesandlanguagetextbooks.BurtandKiparskysTheGooficon:ARepairManualforEnglish(1972)Generallinguisticcategories:theskeletonofEnglishclauses,theauxiliarysystem,passivesentences,temporalconjunctions,andsententialcomplements.Eachgeneralcategoryisthenbrokendownintofurtherlevelsofsubcategories.e.g.Theauxiliarysystemdo,haveandbe,modals,andmismatchingauxiliariesintagquestionsoroveruseinaffirmativesentences.PolitzerandRamirez(1973)Morphology,syntax,andvocabulary.,31,资料借鉴1,Description,SurfaceStrategyTaxonomy,32,资料借鉴1,Description,CordersClassificationofErrorsPre-systematicerrorsoccurwhenlearnersareinacommunicativesituationwhereappropriateformsoflanguagearenotavailabletothembecauseoflackofknowledge.Atthisstage,thelearnerisnotabletocorrecthiserrororexplainit,orgethispointacrossinanotherway.Bysystematicerrors,thelanguagelearneralreadyknowsthelinguisticrulessystembutnotreallymasterthem.Asystematicerrorusuallycannotbecorrectedbythelearner,buthecanexplainhiserrorinthesenseofproviding,indifferentwordingorstructure,alternativelinguisticmessagesthatgethispointacrossandletthehearerknowwhathewasdrivingat.Inthepost-systematicerrorsstage,learnershavegraspedacertaincorrectrule,andcanuseitcorrectly.Theymakeerrorsbecausetheyforgettheruleforthemoment.Asforthiskindoferrors,learnerscancorrectthembythemselvesandexplainwhy.Butlearnersatthisstagemaygetfossilizedwhentheyfailedtocorrecttheirownerrors.,33,资料借鉴1,Description,SomeOtherMajorClassifications:InterlingualErrorandIntralingualErrorRichards(1974)andsomeotherresearchersdistinguishbetweeninterlingualandintralingualerrors.Interlingualerror(语际错误):Itisanerrorwhichresultsfromlanguagetransfer,thatis,whichiscausedbythelearnersnativelanguage.Itmainlyresultsfromcross-linguisticinterferenceatdifferentlevelssuchasphonological,lexical,grammaticalordiscoursaletc.e.g.1.Iwanttomarrywithhim.(受汉语中“我想和他结婚”介词“和”的影响)2.Iopendoor.(汉语中，我开门，无冠词)Intralingualerror(语内错误):Itisanerrorwhichresultsfromfaultyorpartiallearningofthetargetlanguage.Itmaybecausedbytheinfluenceofonetargetlanguageitemuponanother.e.g.HeiscomesfromtheblendofthesentencesHeiscomingandHecomes.,34,资料借鉴1,Description,SomeOtherMajorClassifications:InputErrorandOutputErrorIntermsofcommunication,errorsarebeclassifiedintoinputandoutputerrorsinconsideringthechannelsofinputandoutput.Inotherwords,errorsoccurinlisteningorreadingarecalledinputerrorsandthoseoccurinwritingandspeakingareoutputerrors.GlobalErrorandLocalErrorGlobalerrors:thoseaffectthemeaningofthewholesentenceorsemanticrelationsbetweensentences,andthuscaninterferewithcommunication.e.g.IatealotsoIwashungry.Localerrors:thosethatdonotaffectthemeaningofthewholesentencesignificantly.e.g.Thereismanymilkinthebottle.,35,资料借鉴1,Description,SomeOtherMajorClassifications:FrequentErrorandOccasionalErrorFrequenterrorsrefertoerrorsoccurinhighfrequency.e.g.Iftheerror“Heismysister”frequentlyappears,itcouldbeinterpretedasafrequenterror.Occasionalerrorsarethoseoccurinlowfrequency.LinguisticErrorandContentErrorGenerally,peopletendtoemphasizemoreonthelinguisticform,(i.e.lexicalerrorsandstructuralerrors)butignorethecontenterrorssuchaspragmaticfailureandculturalinappropriateness.Inasense,contenterrorismoreimportant,becauseitcancausemisunderstandingandevenculturalshock.e.g.-Yourhandwritingissobeautiful.-No,myhandwritingisworsethanyours.,36,资料借鉴1,37,资料借鉴1,Explanation,Explanationisconcernedwithestablishingthesourceoftheerror.Taylor(1986)pointsout,theerrorsourcemaybepsycholinguistic,sociolinguistic,epistemicormayresideinthediscoursestructure.PsycholinguisticsourcesconcernthenatureoftheL2knowledgesystemandthedifficultieslearnershaveinusingitinproduction.Sociolinguisticsourcesinvolvesuchmattersasthelearnersabilitytoadjusttheirlanguageinaccordancewiththesocialcontext.EpistemicsourcesconcernthelearnerslackofworldknowledgeDiscoursesourcesinvolveproblemsintheorganizationofinformationintoacoherent“text”.,38,资料借鉴1,Explanation,Psycholinguisticsourcesoferrors,39,资料借鉴1,Explanation,Differentsourcesorcausesofcompetenceerrors(Richard,1971)Interferenceerrorsoccurasaresultof“theuseofelementsfromonelanguagewhilespeakinganother.”Intralanguageerrorsreflectthegeneralcharacteristicsofrulelearningsuchasfaultygeneralization,incompleteapplicationofrulesandfailuretolearnconditionsunderwhichrulessupply.Developmentalerrorsoccurwhenthelearnerattemptstobuilduphypothesesaboutthetargetlanguageonthebasisoflimitedexperience.,40,资料借鉴1,Explanation,Transfererrorscanbefurthersubdivided.Lott(1983)distinguishesthreecategories.OverextensionofanalogyoccurswhenthelearnermisusesanitembecauseitsharesfeatureswithanitemintheL1.e.g.Italianlearnersuse“process”tomean“trail”becauseItalian“processo”hasthismeaning.TransferofstructureariseswhenthelearnerutilizessomeL1feature(phonological,lexical,grammatical,orpragmatic)ratherthanthatofthetargetlanguage.Interlingual/intralingualerrorsarisewhenaparticulardistinctiondoesnotexistintheL1.e.g.theuseof“make”insteadof“do”byItalianlearnersbecausethe“make/do”distinctionisnon-existentinItalian.,41,资料借鉴1,Explanation,Intralingualerrorsarealsooftenfurthersubdivided.Richard(1971)distinguishesthefollowing:Overgenralizationerrorsarisewhenthelearnercreatesadeviantstructureonthebasisofotherstructuresinthetargetlanguage.e.g.Hecansings.=Hecansing.+Hesings.Ignoranceofrulerestrictionsinvolvestheapplicationofrulestocontextswheretheydonotapply.e.g.Heaskedmetogo.Hemademetorest.Incompleteapplicationofrulesinvolvesafailuretofullydevelopastructure,becausethlearnerfindshecanachieveeffectivecommunicationbyusingrelativelysimplerules.e.g.Youliketosing?vs.Doyouliketosing?Falseconceptshypothesizedarisewhenthelearnerdoesnotfullycomprehendadistinctioninthetargetlanguage.e.g.“was”vs.“Onedayitwashappened.”,42,资料借鉴1,Explanation,DulayandBurt(1974)classifiedtheerrorstheycollectedintothreebroadcategories:Developmentalerrorsi.e.thosethataresimilartofirstlanguageacquisition.Interferenceerrorsi.e.thosethatreflectthefirstlanguagestructure.Uniqueerrorsi.e.thosethatareneitherdevelopmentalnorinterference.,43,资料借鉴1,Explanation,Communicationstrategiesistheconsciousemploymentofaverbalornonverbalmechanismforcommunicatinganideawhenpreciselinguisticformsareforsomereasonnotreadilyavailabletothelearneratapointincommunication.FourmaincommunicationstrategiesaregenerallyusedbyL2learners:1.avoidence2.prefabricatedpetterns3.appealtoauthority4.languageswitch,Cognitiveandaffectivefactors:Thelearnersstyleofthinkingandpersonalitystylecanalsobesourcesoferrors.Animpulsiveperson,forexample,mayspeakfluentlyinthetargetlanguagebutwithmoreerrors,whereasareflectivepersonmaymakefewererrorsinhiscarefulbuthesitantspeechinthetargetlanguage.,44,资料借鉴1,MethodsofEA,TheTraditionalApproach/TheBehavioristicApproachGrammarisveryimportant.Sowheneveranerroroccursinthelearnersperformance,theteacheralwaystakesgreatpainstocorrectit.TheMentalisticApproachTGGrammar(Transformationalgrammar)Errorsarenolongerviewedasfaultyversionofthetargetlanguage.Theyreflecttheprocessinwhichthelearnerslinguisticcompetenceisdeveloped.,45,资料借鉴1,46,资料借鉴1,Evaluation,Threequestionshavetobeconsidered:Aresomeerrorsjudgedtobemoreproblematicthanothers?AretheredifferencesintheevaluationsmadebyNS(nativespeaker)andNNS(non-nativespeaker)?Whatcriteriadojudgesuseinevaluatinglearnerserrors?,47,资料借鉴1,Evaluation,Aresomeerrorsjudgedtobemoreproblematicthanothers?NSjudgestendtojudgelexicalerrorsasmoreseriousthangrammaticalerrors.TheyalsotendtojudgeglobalgrammaticalerrorsasmorelikelytointerferewithcomprehensionthanlocalerrorsGlobalerrors:i.e.wrongwordorder,missingorwronglyplacedsentenceconnectors,andsyntacticovergeneralizationsLocalerrors:i.e.errorsinmorphologyorgrammaticalfunctionsTheymayalsobeinfluencedbymarkednessfactors.Theyalsofinditeasiertodealwithinsertionthanwithomissionorwrongchoiceerrors.,48,资料借鉴1,Evaluation,AretheredifferencesintheevaluationsmadebyNS(nativespeaker)andNNS(non-nativespeaker)?TherearecleardifferencesinthejudgementsmadebyNSandNNS.NNSaremuchmoresevere.NNSjudgesseemtobeespeciallyhardonmorphologicalandfunctorerrorsincomparisontoNSjudges.However,theytendtoevaluatelexicalandglobalerrorslessseverelythanNSjudges.,49,资料借鉴1,Evaluation,Whatcriteriadojudgesuseinevaluatinglearnerserrors?Judgesappeartousedifferentcriteriainassessingerrorgravity.Khalil(1985)identifiesthreegeneralcriteria:IntelligibilityItconcernstheextenttowhichsentencescontainingdifferentkindsoferrorcanbecomprehended.AcceptabilityItisarathervaguecriterion,involvingjudgementsoftheseriousnessofanerror.IrritationItconcernstheemotionalresponseofanaddresseebutisalsorelatedtothefrequencyoferrors.,50,资料借鉴1,Evaluation,Whatcriteriadojudgesuseinevaluatinglearnerserrors?CarlJames(1998)suggestsseveralcriteriainassessingerrorgravity.Theparamountisthelinguisticcriteriawhichjudgeerrorgravitybyformalfeaturesoflanguage.Thenextisaquantitativemeasureoferrorgravity:errordensityanderrorfrequency.Errordensityiscalculatedbycountinghowmanydifferenterrorsoccurperunitoftext;Errorfrequencyisameasureofhowmanytimesthesameerrorisrepeatedover100wordsoftext.Comparedwithhigherrorfrequency,higherrordensitycreatesmoredifficultyincomprehension.,51,资料借鉴1,52,资料借鉴1,Correctivefeedback,ThedefinitionsofcorrectivefeedbackLong(1996)supposesthatinthefieldofSLA,correctivefeedbackconcentratesonthesimplecorrectionofthelearnerslanguageoutput.Lightbownfurther,correctusesmaybeoverlooked.Potentialforavoidance.Absenceoferrorsmayresultfromlearnersavoidanceofdifficultstructures,andthiswillnotberevealedbyEA.,62,资料借鉴1,Schachtesresearch,LimitationsofEA,63,资料借鉴1,Schachtesresearch,LimitationsofEA,64,资料借鉴1,Schachtesresearch,LimitationsofEA,65,资料借鉴1,66,资料借鉴1,EarlyArrivalGeneration1.5he/sheregularlyspokealanguageotherthanEnglishwithhis/herfamily(orinthehousewherehe/shespentmostofhis/herchildhood),he/shehasreceivedfiveormoreyearsofformaleducationintheUnitedStates,he/sheislessthan22yearsold,he/shegraduatedfromaU.S.highschoolorpassedhis/herGeneralEducationDevelopment(GED)test(ahighschoolequivalencetest).,PaperAnalysis,67,资料借鉴1,Purpose:todeterminewhetherlanguageusepatternsinearlyarrivalGeneration1.5writingmorecloselyresemblethepatternsdemonstratedbyL1orL2writers,orperhapsdemonstratedpatternsunlikee