市场营销学外文翻译外文文献英文文献市场营销

1、Marketi ng(From: Sun Kun of Acco un ti ng En glish, 2008.)Marketi ng is a group of in terrelated activities desig ned to ide ntify con sumer needs and to develop,distribute,promote,and price goods and services to satisfy these needs at a profit.Whether an organization is large or small,whether it pr

2、oduces a product or provides a service,its Ion g-ra nge future is lin ked to successful markti ng practices.The old say ing Build a better mousetrap and the world will beat a path to your dooris not true. They must n eed the product,k now about it,be able to get it whe n and where they want it,and b

3、e able to afford it.Marketing provides the means to make the orga ni zatio n successful in the long run.1.The Market ing Con ceptMarketi ng was un heard of in the early 1900s. This period can best be described as one where far more people n eeded con sumer goods tha n compa nies were able to manu fa

4、cture.Thisintense dema nd on manu facturi ngled to orga ni zati onsdominated by production management. Companies had a production orientation: where the nu mber one priorityis to produce a good to keep up with dema nd.Allenergies and talents were laced in the production function. Selling a good was

5、in cide ntal; determ ining con sumer n eeds was un heard of.As manu facturers in creased their producti on capabilities,the supply of goods available in creased and inven tories of goods developed. An emphasis on selli ng occurred. This need to sell led to a sales-dominatedcompany-a salesorientation

6、,whereby the energy of thecompany is focused on selling the productsproduced. The salespersios job:(1)to make the desires of the consumers fitthe products the compa ny manu factures and (2)to convince the con sumer to buy. The compa nys goal:tose nd the out full and bring it back empty.As more produ

7、cers began competing for consumer dollars by making such high-demandproducts as automobiles,vacuumcleaners,andrefrigerators,thesupply of goods bega n to exceed the dema nd. Compa nies had to find a way to iden tify con sumer dema nd.Compa ny profits.Compa nies that are marketi ng orie nted have adop

8、ted a philosophy for the firm known as the marketi ng con cept.The marketi ng con cept is a belief that the compa ny should adopt a companywide consumer orientation directed at Iong-range profitabilit yt in eludes the belied that all efforts of the orga ni zati on should be directed at ide ntify ing

9、 and satisfy ingProducti on Orien tati onCompa nies were esse ntially product ion-orie ntedfrom the latter part of thenin etee nth cen tury to about 1920. Emphasis was placed on filli ng the dema nd for basic commodities. The typical family had little discreti onary in come and there was little dema

10、 nd for products not associated with filli ng those basic family requirements.Demand was usually supplied by the producers perception of what consumers needed. Product design and product line decisions were heavily in flue need by manu facturi ng con siderati on s.Ma nageme ntatte ntio n was directe

11、dprimarily toimpro ving product ion methods,i ncreas ing output,a nd loweri ng costs.Sales Orien tati onThe period of sales orientation covered roughly the years from 1920 to 1950.With the exception of the years of the Grat Depression ,this period was characterized by gradually risi ng discreti onar

12、y in come,emergi ng dema nd for products,i ncreas ing competiti on,and the expa nsion of distributio n cha nn els.Although product decisions continued to be dominatedby what themanu facturi ng departme nt wan ted to make ,the role of sales became in creas in gly importa nt. With the product ion depa

13、rtme nt capable of tuning out in creas ing qua ntities of goods through mass product ion tech niq ues,compa ny success bega n to turn on the ability of the sales force to move inven tories.Market Orien tati onCoveri ng the years from about 1950 to 1970 ,this period was characterized by a con ti nuin

14、g shift in bus in ess emphasis to un dersta nding and react ing to cha nging markets.The dramatic rise in con sumer discreti onary in come followi ng World War II created dema nd for new products and services. The mobility provided by mass ownership of automobiles encouraged the development of subur

15、bs, new shopping patter ns, and cha nges in distributi onmethods. Markets became more segme ntedand more complex. Product life cycles shorte ned.With these con diti on s,producti on people no Ion ger were in a positi on to determ ine accurately what would sell. Selli ng skills were no Ion ger suffic

16、ie nt to overcome the problems created when products were not attuned to a more discrim inant market dema nd. In order to provide a better fit betwee n market dema nd and compa ny offeri ngs-a nd in order to provide for better coord in ati on of marketi ng activities-compa nies reorga ni zed and ass

17、ig ned in creased resp on sibilities to the marketi ng departme nt.Marketing took on the role of analyzing markets and interpreting the needs, and manu facturi ng departme nts. More sophisticated aproaches were developed to fulfill the traditi onal marketi ng roles of product promoti on and the man

18、ageme nt of distributio n cha nn els. The role of marketi ng in pric ing in creased.A nd fin ally, the marketing department became the focal point for the development of corporate strategies n eeded to adjust to market cha nge.Societal Orien tati onWhen man ageme nts adopted the market ing con cept,

19、 they could not foresee the environmentalproblems or the changes in societys values that would raisequesti ons about the market orie ntati on philosophy .In terms of what we now know about polluti on, the fin ite ness of raw materials, and the appare nt in ability of our econo mic system to elimi na

20、te poverty, some people questio n whether what is good for the in dividualcon sumer is always good for societ y.ln creas in gly,n atio nalpolicy-a nd, in turn, bus in ess policy-is temperi ng concern for the con sumer with concern for society as a whole. Thomas A. Murphy, chairman of General Motors,

21、 addressed this dilemma when he said , We may have let ourselves grow out of touch with the customers n eed for con ti nued satisfact ion in a time of heighte ned expectati ons and the societys concern for en vir onmen tal improve-me nt and en ergy con servati on.Marketing policies attuned to servin

22、g the market as the market wants to be served continue to represent modern company policy. But we are also seeing market-orie nted decisi ons modified by societal concerns, as a result both of law and of resp on sible man ageme nt policies.2.Cha nn els of distributi onEfficie nt product ion methods,

23、 coupled with skilful marketi ng ,may have en sured that we can produce goods or services cheaply and that there is a market for them. There remai ns the vitally importa nt questi on of how we actually get our goods and services to the customer.Direct sales to CustomersThis ,of course, is the oldest

24、 form of distribution and in many trades it remains the most important. However, it can be a very awkward one in some bus in esses such as manu facturi ng. Customers especially private buyers, are un likely to go to a factory to buy what they want, and manufacturing firms , at least one compa ny see

25、k ing to sell its cha ins of petrol filli ng stati ons in the mid 1980s.There are other trades where producers sell directly to customers. In some cases this is because producers find it adva ntageous to con trol the final retail stage and be in a positi on to offer a complete service, in cludi ng a

26、fter-sales service,to the customer.I n other industries producers may sell directly to consumers through factory shops, farm shops ,pick-your-own arrangements at farms,by mail order or any other scheme that bus in ess ingenu ity may devise.Orga ni zed MarketsAfter direct sell ing ,markets represe nt

27、 the oldest form of trade from producer to con sumer. Here we have in mind not the ratail mardets found in many tow ns on market days but the markets where producers and traders, especially the traders in commodities make their deals . These markets , located in many of the worlds major trad ing cen

28、 ters , in cludi ng London where most of the ma in British commodity excha nges are found ,bri ng together producers and traders who wish to buy in bulk for on ward Distributio n to the final customer.By commodities we mean goods such as tin, copper , zinc and other metals or bulk foodstuffs like te

29、a, coffee, wheat and cocoa. What dist in guishes commodities is that they tend to be sold on the basis of objective descripti ons , such as Brazilia n coffee or Sri Lankan tea, rather tha n accordi ng to some brand n ame, though, of course, the experie need buyer will be able to dist in guish high a

30、nd low quality goods accord ing to their source or to a wholesaler.Wholesali ngThe markets we have just outlined are wholesale markets . Wholesaling invoIves purchasing goods in large quantities from the producer or importer and selli ng in smaller qua ntities to the retailer, or sometimes, to ano t

31、her wholesaler or dealer. A service is provided as the producer prefers to deal with large orders and the retailer in smaller purchases. There are ,however, other services provided by wholesali ng besides this break ing bulk.Conven ti onal wholesali ng has decli ned in importa nee in rece nt decades

32、. The functions of wholesaling still have to be undertaken but are now often less importa nt tha n in the past and where they rema in esse ntial are ofte n carried out by manufacturers, or, more noticeably, by retailers. The growth of large chains inretailing has often been made possible by the inco

33、rporationof wholesaling andretailing within the one organization.Develomentsin production methods, intran sport and com muni cati ons have all con tributed to this process . Whe n flour was sold by millers in large sacks, break ing bulk was a n ecessary service for small shops selli ng to ordinary h

34、ouseholds. Moder n mach ines have no difficulty in pack ing flour in paper bags at the end of the producti on line. Motorway tran sport, the telepho ne and telex have brought retailer and manufacturercloser together and thewholesalers warehous ing is not always esse ntial to bridge the gap betwee n

35、them.Age ntsAge nts may offer an alter native to wholesalers. An age nt acts on behalf of ano ther, the prin cipal. The role of the age nt in distributio n is to take over the work of distribution from the manufacturer. In some ways agents may act much like a wholesaler; in other ways they may act l

36、ike a retailer and sell to the final customer. Age nts can be particularly importa nt in servici ng foreig n markets where they have special local kno wledge.Fran chis ingThis is a grow ing form of distributio n. A fran chise gives the sole right to serve a locality with a particular good or service

37、. Age nts ofte n hold sole fran chises. The moder n trend in fran chis ing is for producers carefully to develop and market the product, including the organization of advertising,and then to leave the retail stage to a fran chised in depe ndent firm. The fran chise holder no rmally has to pay for th

38、e fran chise. In retur n they receive a wide range of services from the producer. The shop will be laid out according to a distinctive pattern. Special equipment will be provided,tra ining give n and exclusive supplies of materials provided.Franchising has been particularly important in some service

39、 trades such as fast foods. Its supporters claim that it comb ines the in dividua Ien trepre neurship of the in depe ndent fran chise holder with the econo mies of large scale product ion, advertis ing and so on .It also provides a role for small firms and pers onal in itiative in an economy which o

40、ften seems to be dominated by large organizations . The systems critics claim that large producers favor it as it gives them retail outlets and retail management at very low cost. It can also lead to frustrated expectations among the fran chise holders who will n ever truly be their own bosses.The m

41、arketi ng MixAs with all bus in ess decisi ons, there is no one right form of distributio n and no one right approach to market ing a firms products. In deed a sin gle firm may choose differe nt ways of marketi ng differe nt products. Marketi ng and distributio n man agers must choose a comb in ati

42、on of differe nt strategies in resp onse to an en vir onment in which a nu mber of forces, many of them bey ond their con trol, are at work. The chosen marketing mix (or market mix) of price, distribution channel, advertising and product promotion must be the result of careful analysis of the en vir

43、 onment, the available strategies and the n ature of the firms product.市场营销市场营销是一组相互关联的活动，用于确定消费者的需求并对商品和服务进行开 发、分销、促销和给产品和服务定价，从而在赢利的前提下满足这些需求。不论一个 企业是大还是小，也不论它是生产产品还是提供服务，它的长远的未来是与成功的市 场营销操作密切相关的。常言道，酒香不怕巷子深”，这种说法并不正确。顾客必须对这个产品有需求， 有了解，并在需要它的时间和地点能得到它，还得有支付能力。市场营销正是提供了 一个使企业最终获得成功的途径。1市场营销的概念在20世纪

44、初市场营销还不为人知。人们把这个时期描述成一个对消费品的需求 过大于公司生产能力的时期。这种对生产的强烈需求导致了企业被生产管理所主宰。生产导向”成为公司的目标：即，首要任务是生产产品满足需求。所有的能量与智慧 全用于生产职能上。销售产品则是无足轻重的；确定消费者的需要的做法更是闻所未 闻。随着越来越多的生产者开始通过制造一些热销的产品，像轿车、吸尘器和电冰箱 等来相互竞争从而赚取消费者兜里的美元，这些商品已经开始供大于求。各公司不得 不去寻找一个确定消费者需求的途径。于是各企业开始转向市场营销导向”。市场营销导向强调先明确一个特定的消费群体的需求，然后再生产、促销、定价并分销产品， 从而满足

45、这些需求并为公司赚取利润。这些以市场营销为导向的公司采用了一种被称之为 市场营销观”的哲学。这种 市 场营销观”相信应该在全公司范围内采取一种以消费者为导向的意识，旨在获得长期利润。它包括相信整个企业的努力都是为了确定并满足消费者的需要，以求赢利。生产导向从19世纪下半叶到大约20世纪20年代，企业基本上是以生产为导向的。人们 强调满足顾客基本商品的需要。一般家庭没有多少可自由支配的收入，而且它们对那 些与满足基本需要无关的产品需求很小。生产者通过根据直觉判断消费者所需来提供 产品满足需要。产品的设计和生产线上的决策主要从生产的角度来考虑。管理层的注 意力主要放在如何改进生产方法、提高产量、降

46、低成本上。销售导向以销售为导向的时期大致是从1920到1950，大萧条时期的那几年除外。这个时 期的特点是，人们可自由支配的收入逐渐增加，出现了对不同产品的需求，竞争加剧, 而且流通渠道也扩大了。虽然生产决定仍由生产部门的意愿操纵，但销售的角色愈发 重要了。由于生产部门能够通过大规模生产技术生产出越来越多的商品，公司的成功 开始取决于销售队伍推销货物的能力。市场导向从1950到1970，这个时期的显著特点是商业的重点不断地转向去理解和回应变 化中的市场。二战后的消费者可自由支配的收入大幅度增长，这使得人们对新产品的 新服务产生了需求。汽车的大量占有所带来的流动性刺激了郊区的发展，新型购物模 式

47、的出现及分销方法的变化。市场的划分越来越细，越来越复杂。产品的生命周期也 缩短了。在这些条件下，生产者们不再处于决定到底去销售什么的位置。当产品无法适应 一个更加参差的市场需要时，仅靠销售技巧已无法去解决问题了。为了在市场需求和 公司供给之间找到一个更合适的平衡点，也为了能使市场营销活动更好的协调，公司 对组织进行重新划分并赋予市场营销部门以更大的职责。市场营销的角色就是分析市场并解释市场的需要以及这些市场的特殊需求，并将 信息提供给工程部、研究部、发展部和生产部。人们还开发出了更行之有效的办法去 完成市场营销的传统角色，即产品推销和分销渠道管理。市场营销在定价中的作用也 增加了。最后，为公司

48、在制定针对市场变化而做的战略调整时，市场营销部门成为了 一个焦点。市场营销观不仅仅是为自己偏爱的大众设计的利他主义哲学。它是作为一个商业 哲学发展起来的，即认为为顾客提供更好的服务就是赚取利润的最好办法。当然，如 果走入极端，给予顾客想要的任何东西，例如赔本价也会导致破产。在市场营销观下， 市场营销经理的角色发生的另一个变化是，不再强调销售量，而是强调赢利销售。没 有可观的利润，就没有一个公司能长久地为顾客提供服务。社会导向当管理者采用市场营销观时，他们不可能预测到环境问题或社会价值观的变化。 这些问题和变化会引发我们对市场导向哲学的质疑。当谈及污染、原材料的有限、以 及我们的经济制度对消除贫

49、困明显地无能为力这些话题时，一些人不禁怀疑对个体消 费者有益的东西是否对社会也总是有益的。国家的政策同时也导致商业政策，开始越 业越注意将对消费者的关心调整为对全社会的关心。通用汽车公司主席托马斯A.莫尔 菲对这种困境的看法是， 在一个期望值提高、社会关注环境改善和能源保护的时代， 我们也许会逐渐忽略消费者需要不断满意这一需求。”这种全心全意服务市场的市场营 销政策依旧代表了现代公司的做法。但我们也将会看到，由于受法制和有责任感的管 理政策的影响，以市场为导向的决策已被对社会的关注所改变。个国家级的品牌形象。零售业还发展了它的 特许专营权”在那里小的、独立的 零售商在一个大组织的指导和控制下进

50、行操作。有时小公司在适应变化和面对经济不 景气时表现得较为灵活。因为经营是惟一的收入来源，因此小公司的所有者必须找到 能生产或销售的东西以便生存。相同条件下，大公司的一个分支机构只能关闭。另外, 小公司会永远存在，因为有独立头脑的人永远存在。他们相当喜欢为自己工作，而不 是为大组织工作。2.分销渠道有效的生产方法加之熟练的市场营销，可以保护我们能廉价地生产商品或提供服 务，并保护这些商品和服务有市场。还有一个至关重要的问题，即我们空间如何让我 们的产品和服务到达顾客那里。向顾客直接销售这当然是分销的最古老的形式。而且在很多行业中依然是最重要的。但是，在一 些像产品制造这样的行业里，这种办法就变

51、得相当不便。顾客，尤其是那些私人购买 者，不可能去工厂买他们需要的东西；而制造工厂至少在过去是不愿意分散精力去自 己开商店的。因此制造商经常利用一些中介机构来使其产品到达顾客手中。一些部门 的制造商开设了自己的零售点。例如，主要的石油公司已经不再局限于炼油，而是将 触角伸到自己的零售流通领域。 这种做法并非总是成功的，而且在20世纪80年代中 期就有报道说至少一家公司正打算卖掉它的连锁加油站。还有一些其他行业的生产商 向顾客直接销售产品。有时这是因为生产商认为，控制最后的零售环节以及向顾客提 供售后服务的全方位服务是有好处的。在其他行业，生产商也能通过工厂商店、农庄 商店、农庄 自选”销售来进行直