《与工业管理》

1、,1,創新、擴散、與工業管理,陳慶文高雄第一科技大學資訊管理系(所)暨電子化企業研究所中華民國97年12月24日,2,One of the greatest pains to human nature is the pain of a new idea. It.makes you think that after all, your favorite notions may be wrong, your firmest beliefs ill-founded. Naturally, therefore, common men hate a new idea, and are disposed

2、more or less to ill-treat the original man who brings it. -Walter Bagehot Physics and Politics,3,Text taken from Rogers, E.M., 1995, Diffusion of Innovations (New York: Free Press), p. 406-8.,4,5,In the United States the snowmobile is a means of winter recreation. Since the invention of the Ski-Doo,

3、 a one-person snow vehicle, in 1958, the adoption of snowmobiles spread dramatically, and within a dozen years over a million were in use in North America.,6,But among the Skolt Lapps, a reindeer-herding people of Northern Finland who live above the Arctic Circle, the rapid introduction of snowmobil

4、es caused far-reaching consequences that were termed disastrous” ,7,Prior to the introduction of snowmobiles, the Skolt Lapps herded semi-domesticated reindeer for their livelihood. Reindeer meat was the main food. Reindeer sleds were the principal means of transportation, reindeer hides were used f

5、or making clothing and shoes. Surplus meat was sold at trading stores for cash to buy flour, sugar, tea, and other staples.,8,The Lapps saw themselves mainly as reindeer-herders, and prestige was accorded to men who had a good string of draught reindeer. Lapp society was an egalitarian system in whi

6、ch each family had approximately equal number of animals.,9,Skolt children received a first-tooth reindeer, a name-day reindeer, and gifts on various other occasions, including wedding gifts of reindeer, so that a new household began with a small herd of the beloved animals. The Lapps felt a special

7、 relationship with their reindeer, and treated them with much care. The reindeer was the central object in Lapp culture.,10,In 1961 a Bombardier Ski-Doo from Canada was displayed in Rovaniemi, the capital city of Finnish Lapland. A schoolteacher purchased this snowmobile for recreational travel, but

8、 soon found that it was useful for hauling wood and storebought supplies.,The Lapps began using snowmobiles for reindeer herding. Within the following year, two ski-doos were purchased for herding reindeer in an area where the land was forested and rocky.,Ski-doo K61,11,Dr. Pertti Pelto of the Unive

9、rsity of Connecticut had lived among the Skolt Lapps in the Sevettijrvi region of Northern Finland for several years, beginning in 1958, prior to the introduction of snowmobiles in 1962-1963. Pelto returned to this community repeatedly over the next decade to assess the impact of the snowmobile revo

10、lution ,12, the rate of adoption of snowmobiles was very rapid among the Lapps. Three snowmobiles were adopted in the second year of diffusion, five more the next year, then eight more, and sixteen in 1966 and 1967. By 1971, almost every one of the seventy-two households in Sevettijrvi (the village

11、studied by Pelto) had at least one snowmobile.,13,An improved model, the Motoski, was introduced from Sweden. It had a more powerful motor and was better suited to driving in rough terrain.,14,The main advantage of the snowmobile was much faster travel. The round trip from Sevettijrvi to buy staple

12、supplies in Norwegian stores was reduced from three days by reindeer sled, to five hours by snowmobile. Within a few years of their initial introduction, snowmobiles completely replaced skis and reindeer sleds as a means of herding reindeer.,15,Unfortunately, the noise and the smell of the machines

13、drove the reindeer into a near-wild state. The friendly relationships between the Lapps and their animals was disrupted by the high-speed machines. Frightened running by the reindeer decreased the number of reindeer calves born each year.,16,The average number of reindeer per household in Sevettigrv

14、i dropped from fifty-two in pre-snowmobile days, to only twelve in 1971, a decade later. This average is misleading because about two-thirds of the Lapp households completely dropped out of reindeer-raising as a result of the snowmobile. Most could not find other work and were unemployed. On the oth

15、er hand, one family in Sevettigrvi, who were relatively early in purchasing a snowmobile, built up a large herd, and by 1971 owned one-third of all reindeer in the community.,17,Not only did the frightened reindeer have fewer calves, but the precipitous drop in the number of reindeer also occurred b

16、ecause many of the animals had to be slaughtered for their meat, so the Lapps could purchase the snowmobiles, gasoline for their operations, and spare parts and repairs. A new machine cost about $1000, and gas and repairs typically cost about $425 per year.,18,Despite this relatively high cost (for

17、the Skolt Lapps, who lived on a subsistence income), snowmobiles were considered a household necessity, and the motorized herding of reindeer was considered much more prestigious than herding by skis or with reindeer sleds. The snowmobile revolution pushed the Skolt Lapps into a tailspin of cash dep

18、endency, debt, and unemployment.,19,Further, Lapp society is very individualistic, and given the technologys advantages for the first adopters (who were wealthier and younger than the average), initial adoption was impossible to prevent. Thereafter, the diffusion process quickly ran its course.,20,A

19、s a result, the reindeer-centred culture of the Skolt Lapps was severely disrupted. Most families today are unemployed and depend upon the Finnish government for subsistence payments.,The snowmobile revolution in the arctic led to disastrous consequences for the reindeer, and for the Lapps who depen

20、ded on the animals for their livelihood.,21,Since the anthropological study of the snowmobile revolution by Pertti Pelto, further technological developments have occurred in Lapland. During the summer months, the Lapps began using motorcycles to herd their reindeer. Certain affluent Lapps even began

21、 using helicopters.,22,An increasing number of reindeer slaughtered for meat were found to have stomach ulcers. Certainly technological innovation has not been kind to the Skolt Lapps.,Consequences of Innovations,consequences, the changes that occur to an individual or to a social system as a result

22、 of the adoption or rejection of an innovation. CHAPTER 11,Everett Rogers father of this field of study of the diffusion of innovations Chairman of the Department of Communication and Journalism at the University of New Mexico First edition published in 1962 Now in its fifth edition - reviews more t

23、han 5,000 publications in this field of “diffusion research” Covers about 20 different disciplines such as anthropology, communication, industrial engineering, psychology,Free Press, 2003,25,Definition of Diffusion of Innovation,the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain chan

24、nels over time among the members of a social system. - Everett Rogers,The reason why Taiwan has become the leader in so many fields is because of its unyielding commitments to innovation. Bill Gates in the film - Its Very Well Made in Taiwan, innovation does not need to be new in terms of being rece

25、ntly developed, it only needs to be new to the person or organization that is adopting and implementing it.,- Rogers, 1995 -,28,Management of Technologythe key to competitiveness and wealth creation,Technology: all the knowledge, products, processes, tools, methods, and systems employed in the creat

26、ion of goods or in providing services. (the way we do things.) Tarek Khalil, 2000 (Univ. of Miami),29,Example: iomega (zip disk): a parallel port zip driver (suck product!) ultra-sound in India (misused product!) McDonald: parallel production for competition (process innovation with latest cooking t

27、echnologies),30,Making Hamburgers at McDonalds, Burger King, and Wendys,31,Everett Rogers (1962) defined Innovation -“An idea, practice, or object perceived as new”,Carefully studied new innovations in: Hybrid corn, Television, Manufacturing and Medicine Concluded that “New ideas tend to follow a pa

28、ttern in entering society” i.e. how they “diffuse” into society,32,The Innovation Adoption Decision-Making Process,There are five stages in the process to adopt an innovation. Knowledge An individual understands what it is, how it works, and why it works. (Cognitive) Persuasion An individual forms a

29、 favorable or an unfavorable attitude toward the innovation. (Affective) Decision An individual engages in activities that lead to a choice to adopt or reject an innovation. Implementation An individual puts an innovation to use. Confirmation An individual seeks reinforcement for the innovation deci

30、sion already made. Diffusion of Innovation, Rogers. 1983,33,Diffusion of Innovation(Rogers,1995),Stages of adoption: Awareness - the individual is exposed to the innovation but lacks complete information about it Interest - the individual becomes interested in the new idea and seeks additional infor

31、mation about it Evaluation - individual mentally applies the innovation to his present and anticipated future situation, and then decides whether or not to try it Trial - the individual makes full use of the innovation Adoption - the individual decides to continue the full use of the innovation,34,T

32、he Adoption Process,Many individuals play a role Many factors impact the rate of adoption Leaders in adoption not always in “traditional” leadership roles,35,Innovation characteristics,Observability The degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to potential adopters Relative Advantage

33、 The degree to which the innovation is perceived to be superior to current practice Compatibility The degree to which the innovation is perceived to be consistent with socio-cultural values, previous ideas, and/or perceived needs Trialability The degree to which the innovation can be experienced on

34、a limited basis Complexity The degree to which an innovation is difficult to use or understand.,36,Adopter Categories,People fall into one of five categories of adopters or non-adopters. Innovators Venturesome, eager to try new ideas. The innovator must be able to cope with the high degree of uncert

35、ainty about an innovation at the time they make the decision to adopt. They are risk takers and are willing to accept an occasional setback. Early Adopters Respectable and are more integrated into the social system than are innovators. This group includes the largest number of opinion leaders. These

36、 are the “people to check with” before using a new idea. Early Majority Deliberate but adopt new ideas just before the average member of a social system. They seldom are viewed as opinion leaders. Late Majority Skeptical and often make a decision or adopt a new idea as an economic necessity or in re

37、sponse to pressure from peers or others. Laggards Traditional and offer almost no option to leadership. Their focus is mostly on the past. Diffusion of Innovation, Rogers. 1983,37,Successful Diffusion depends on understanding how the needs of adopters will change over time, and how adopters influenc

38、e each other,Early majority 34%,Late majority 34%,Early adopters 13.5%,16%,2.5%,Innovators,Laggards and nonadopters,Risk takingvisionaries(beta testers) Super-Informed Mobile Sophisticated Little influenceon market,Visionaries Progressive Opinion leaders Curious Visible Informed Mobile Patient withtesting phase,Pragmatists Cautious Attentive toearly adopters Require much information before adopt