History of the English Language

1、history of the english language英语语言史a short history of the origins and development of english短的历史起源和发展，英语the history of the english language really started with the arrival of three germanic tribes who invaded britain during the 5th century ad. these tribes, the angles, the saxons and the jutes, cro

2、ssed the north sea from what today is denmark and northern germany. at that time the inhabitants of britain spoke a celtic language. but most of the celtic speakers were pushed west and north by the invaders - mainly into what is now wales, scotland and ireland. the angles came from englaland and th

3、eir language was called englisc - from which the words england and english are derived.英语真正的历史应该从公元5世纪时入侵英国的三个日耳曼部落说起. 这几个部落分别是, 盎格鲁人, 撒克逊人，和朱特人，他们从今天的德国北部和丹麦出发，然后横渡北海。那时候英国的本地居民都说凯尔特语。但由于入侵者的逼迫，他们都被赶到了西部和北部-主要是现在的威尔士，苏格兰和爱尔兰。盎格鲁人来自englaland他们的语言称为englisc（古英语）-这两个词就是现在england和english的前身。old english

4、(450-1100 ad)the invading germanic tribes spoke similar languages, which in britain developed into what we now call old english. old english did not sound or look like english today. native english speakers now would have great difficulty understanding old english. nevertheless, about half of the mo

5、st commonly used words in modern english have old english roots. the words be, strong and water, for example, derive from old english. old english was spoken until around 1100. 古英语时代（450-1100ad）入侵英国的这几个日耳曼部落，其语言基本相近，这些语言的融合形成了我们现在称的古语言。古英语的发音与书写与现在的英语并不一样。因此以英语为母语的人对于阅读古英语也有很大的困难。然而，现代英语最常用的词语中，大约就有

6、一半起源于古英语。例如be,strong和water。古英语一直被使用到1100年左右。middle english (1100-1500)in 1066 ，william the conqueror（入侵者）, the duke of normandy (part of modern france), invaded and conquered england. the new conquerors (called the normans) brought with them a kind of french, which became the language of the royal c

7、ourt, and the ruling and business classes. for a period there was a kind of linguistic class division, where the lower classes spoke english and the upper classes spoke french. in the 14th century english became dominant in britain again, but with many french words added. this language is called mid

8、dle english. it was the language of the great poet chaucer (c1340-1400), but it would still be difficult for native english speakers to understand today. 中世纪英语(1100-1500)1066年，诺曼底（现法国的一部分）公爵威廉入侵并征服了英国。新征服者带来了他们的语言-一种法语，而这也成为皇室法庭，统治阶级和商人阶级的语言。曾经一段时间，出现了以语言区分阶级的现象，下层阶级说英语，上层阶级说法语。在14世纪英语重新成为英国主流语言，但也增

9、加了许多法语单词，这就是中世纪英语。伟大的诗人乔叟就是这种语言，但对于今天的人来说仍旧十分难懂。modern englishearly modern english (1500-1800)towards the end of middle english, a sudden and distinct change in pronunciation (the great vowel shift) started, with vowels being pronounced shorter and shorter. from the 16th century the british had cont

10、act with many peoples from around the world. this, and the renaissance of classical learning, meant that many new words and phrases entered the language. the invention of printing also meant that there was now a common language in print. books became cheaper and more people learned to read. printing

11、 also brought standardization to english. spelling and grammar became fixed, and the dialect of london, where most publishing houses were, became the standard. in 1604 the first english dictionary was published.现代英语早期现代英语(1500-1800)随着中世纪英语的泯灭，发音突然发生了很大的变化（元音大推移），元音的发音越来越短。而从16世纪起英国与世界的接触多了起来，再加上文艺复兴

12、的影响，导致越来越多的单词和短语被添加到英语中。印刷术的发明使得书面语流行起来。书变得越来越便宜，更多的人开始学习阅读。拼写和语法变得越来越固定，而由于伦敦市大多数出版社的所在，伦敦方言就变成了标准语言。1604年第一部英文词典出版了。late modern english (1800-present)the main difference between early modern english and late modern english is vocabulary. late modern english has many more words, arising from two pr

13、incipal factors: firstly, the industrial revolution and technology created a need for new words; secondly, the british empire at its height covered one quarter of the earths surface, and the english language adopted foreign words from many countries.晚期现代英语(1800-present)早期现代英语与晚期现代英语的主要区别是词汇。晚期现代英语增加

14、了许多词汇，这主要有两个因素：首先，工业和技术革命的出现需要更多的新词；其次，英帝国在其鼎盛时期覆盖了地球大约四分之一的面积，英语也许多其他国家吸收了很多新词。varieties of englishfrom around 1600, the english colonization of north america resulted in the creation of a distinct american variety of english. some english pronunciations and words froze when they reached america. i

15、n some ways, american english is more like the english of shakespeare than modern british english is. some expressions that the british call americanisms are in fact original british expressions that were preserved in the colonies while lost for a time in britain (for example trash for rubbish, loan

16、 as a verb instead of lend, and fall for autumn; another example, frame-up, was re-imported into britain through hollywood gangster movies). spanish also had an influence on american english (and subsequently british english), with words like canyon, ranch, stampede and vigilante being examples of s

17、panish words that entered english through the settlement of the american west. french words (through louisiana) and west african words (through the slave trade) also influenced american english (and so, to an extent, british english).英语变种大约从1600年开始，北美地区的英国殖民地开始形成美洲英语，这是一种独特的英语变种。一些词的发音，甚至单词本身，一到了美国就

18、被“冻结”了。从某些方面来说，美式英语比英式英语更像莎士比亚时代的英语。一些英国人所称的“美式风格”表述方式其实是英式表达，但这些表达方式因为其比较古老，他们只在殖民地保留了下来（例如垃圾trash,借贷loan,秋天fall，另一个例子frame-up，通过好莱坞警匪片重新引入英国）。西班牙语对美式英语也有一定影响（其次才是英式英语），如canyon，ranch,starmpede和vigilante等，这些词汇都是通过在美国西部定居的西班牙人传入美国的。一些法语词汇（通过路易斯安那州）和一些西非词汇（通过奴隶交易）也影响了美式英语的发展（当然，一定程度上，也影响了英式英语）。today,

19、american english is particularly influential, due to the usas dominance of cinema, television, popular music, trade and technology (including the internet). but there are many other varieties of english around the world, including for example australian english, new zealand english, canadian english

20、, south african english, indian english and caribbean english.今天，由于美国在电影，电视，流行音乐，商业和技术（包括因特网）的优势，美式英语的影响之大，超乎想象。但世界上仍有其他英语的变种，例如：澳大利亚英语，新西兰英语，加拿大英语，南非英语，印度英语和加勒比海英语。secret wealth vs. for richer, for poorerwhen linda, a social worker in the new york area, received a significant chunk of money after h

21、er mother died, she did not divulge the amount to her husband of 15 years. instead, she set up separate accounts earmarked for the education of their son and daughter.当琳达，一位在纽约地区的社工，在他母亲去世后收到相当大一部分钱，15 年来她没有对她的丈夫透露金额。相反，她设置单独的帐户，专门用于他们的儿子和女儿的教育。worried that her marriage would founder once her childr

22、en left home, madame m., the wife of an asian industrialist, bought an expensive apartment in central paris to prepare as a possible escape hatch. the money she used had been inherited from her father. the marriage survived. but a decade later, her husband and children still dont know about the pari

23、s property.担心一旦她的孩子们离开了家她的婚姻会垮掉，m夫人，的亚洲的实业家的妻子，买了昂贵的公寓在巴黎市中心准备作为可能的避难所。这笔钱是从她的父亲那里继承的，婚姻幸存。但十年过去了，她的丈夫和孩子仍不知道有关巴黎的私有财产。such behavior is perfectly legal. but the people who engage in it are reluctant to use their full names for fear of destabilizing their families.这样的行为是完全合法的。但那些从事它的人不愿使用自己的全名因为怕的破坏稳

24、定的家庭。the classic marriag e vows may urge for richer, for poorer, but concealing financial activities from a spouse is hardly a new strategy. over a century ago in his play a dolls house, henrik ibsen used the device of a wifes secret loan to unveil the dynamics of an unhealthy marriage.经典结婚的誓言可能强调“无

25、论贫穷和富有”，但配偶隐瞒财产行为并不是一项新现象。一百多年前在玩偶之家这部戏中，易卜生导演的不健康的婚姻说道就是一位妻子的秘密贷款被揭露的情节。but in an age when divorce and serial marriage have become commonplace, when many women are entering marriages earning large sums and such assets are an increasing component of family wealth, it is not just billionaires like ro

26、nald perelman, president of revlon, and donald trump who are concerned about protecting what is his, what is hers and what is theirs.但在离婚再婚已经成为司空见惯的年代，许多妇女步入婚姻时，就能赚取丰厚的收入并且这部分收入已日益成为家庭财富的一部分了，并非只有像ronald perelman, revlon总裁和donald trump那样的百万富翁才关注保护他的财产，他妻子的财产和他们共同的财产。while prenuptial agreements and e

27、ven postnuptial agreements are increasingly being used to set boundaries, in the end, who gets what depends on legal jurisdiction, sound financial planning, national traditions and the psychological state of the marriage.虽然婚前协议，甚至婚后的协议越来越多地被用来设置（财产分割的）界限，最终谁能得到财产还是取决于司法，健全的财务规划，民族传统和婚姻的心理状态。common s

28、ense may dictate that since most countries require income tax returns signed by both spouses, husbands and wives should at least know what the other is earning. but this is not necessarily so, experts in marriage counseling and family law say.常识可能要求，丈夫和妻子应至少知道对方什么收入。因为大多数国家要求由配偶双方签署所得税申报表。但婚姻辅导及家庭法律

29、专家这并不一定是这样的说。at relate, the largest couples counseling charity in britain, each couple is given an exit evaluation after a course of therapy. one question they are asked is, do you know how much your partner earns? many people say no, said denise knowles, a counselor at relate, whose clients come fr

30、om all levels of society.dennis grande, an attorney and family law specialist at mackall, crouse & moore in minneapolis, described it this way: they are both supposed to sign the income tax returns, but frequently it is a multipage document, and she signs in a matter of seconds without reading it. i

31、t is unusual if a wife reviews it or even asks for a copy. i think if the wife has enough to spend and is comfortable, she is not concerned about the technical issues or knowing the exact amount.grande said he even knew of a lot of situations where the husband had signed the wifes name: he takes car

32、e of the money. she takes care of the creature comforts - the homes, the vacation, the social calendar. it is a partnership that works amazingly well for a large percentage of the population.except when it doesnt.it doesnt when the spouses have different attitudes about what money symbolizes and how

33、 it should be spent, when couples have a significant change in their financial status or when one partner becomes unhappy.turbulence can also arise when couples consider how much to leave to their children. that is especially true if there are offspring from multiple marriages and the woman is bring

34、ing a lot of assets into the union.for people of significant means, one of the threshold issues is, how much do they leave to the children, said blanche lark christerson, a managing director at deutsche bank private wealth management in new york. one partner may have a sink-or-swim attitude. the oth

35、er may want to set up trusts for the kids to offer a degree of protection even if they are successful doctors or lawyers, in case their practice may be sued somewhere down the line.conflict over how money is used, or misused, is often a presenting issue when couples go for counseling, according to k

36、nowles. and typically the financial problems reflect more deep-rooted psychological conflicts.for instance, if a husband keeps his salary a secret, he is able to say, we cant afford this; we cannot afford that, knowles said. it becomes a matter of control. meanwhile, keeping secrets can arouse anxie

37、ties in the other partner about where the money is going: how come you wont let me know? where are the statements going? are there gambling problems? are there children i dont know about? these can signal commitment troubles, knowles said.other conflicts may stem from differing social backgrounds. i

38、f the wife grew up where there has been a lot of money, she may enjoy spending freely. but if the husband was brought up with nothing, he may feel driven to save for a rainy day even once he has amassed substantial wealth.for women, the biggest issue is whether there will be sufficient money for the

39、 children in the event of death or divorce. all women want to protect their children above all else, said heather maizels, executive director of barclays private bank in london, which runs a separate advisory for high-net-worth women called wealth for women.typically, she added, women say, all the c

40、hildren should be treated equally. fathers, by contrast, often want to take account of the childrens financial situation as influenced by the childs career choice or marriage situation. the father is more influenced by need, particularly when there are grandchildren.with the number of successful wom

41、en entrepreneurs and high-level professionals rising, maizels said women were increasingly concerned about the assets they brought into the marriage. women with high earnings capacity, she said, are often influenced by their mothers situation.either she never had her own money and she couldnt do thi

42、ngs, maizels said, or she had wealth, but lost it supporting a previous partner, or worse, a partners previous relationship.this is a particularly sensitive issue in england and wales, where prenuptial agreements often are not recognized in court, although they may be considered evidence of intentio

43、n, and the courts have leaned toward some generous distributions of marital assets since a landmark ruling in 2000. (see related article, page 18.)moreover, in contrast to most u.s. states or france, where the napoleonic code governs marital property, england and wales stipulate that all assets that

44、 are brought into the marriage or inherited can be considered part of the marital estate and can be claimed by an unhappy partner, or even spouses and children from previous unions.many people do not understand this and have a very expensive prenuptial agreement drawn up in the united states, maizel

45、s said. they move to england, and later the english court will not recognize it.one solution may be a trust that protects inherited assets or assets earned before a marriage. but ann northover, an attorney at fosters, a law firm in london, warned that such trusts must be set up well in advance of a

46、marriage, or it could be challenged by the court.by contrast, the law in france and most of continental europe provides that whatever assets each partner brings into the marriage, including investments and inheritances, remain theirs, as do gifts and inheritances to an individual partner during the

47、marriage. it is simple, said bertrand lapeyre at tude flusin, a notary firm in paris. because of this law, you dont have to draft a prenuptial agreement. you already have an equivalent in what is called the rgime lgal. only income and assets accumulated during the marriage are considered part of the

48、 community property, of which each partner is considered to own half.even in france, some people choose to fence off additional marital assets. for instance, in the case of a newlywed just out of school who is starting a specialty medical practice, an agreement may be drawn to ensure that the practi

49、ce will remain the doctors property in the event of divorce or death. such before-the-fact agreements, lapeyre said, cost about e500, or $600, and can be drawn up easily by a notaire, a french court officer. however, changing the marital status of an asset after a marriage, in what might be called a

50、 postnuptial agreement in the united states, is an expensive and complex process. it entails appointing a lawyer who can bring it before the court for an examination, lapeyre said. the process can take a year.napoleonic law also provides for a second legal form of marriage called a sparation de bien

51、s, which stipulates no community property and therefore releases each spouse from responsibility for his partners debts. usually it is advisable to choose this regime if the husband has risky business activities, lapeyre said. in the united states, a prenuptial agreement would be necessary to guard

52、one spouse from the others debts.in the united states, each state has its own rules regarding prenups and what assets become part of the marital estate. in many states, assets held before marriage, as well as inheritances and gifts, can remain individual property. but the situation requires careful

53、handling. first, the property or investment must be kept under separate ownership. second, if there are any changes or additions made on a portfolio or property during the marriage, the investment may become common property.for instance, grande said, if a spouse came into the marriage with 1,000 sha

54、res of google bought at the offering price of $85, sold them recently for $400 and bought shares of general electric or halliburton, the account would no longer be completely partitioned from the marriage property, especially if both spouses conferred on the strategy.such mistakes can provide a fiel

55、d day for divorce lawyers, who can easily charge vast sums to hire experts to evaluate assets, find stray assets and undermine the validity of a prenuptial agreement by saying that the weaker partner did not get adequate legal advice, there was fraud in the statement of net worth or the contract was

56、 signed under duress.some people sign these documents, and it is in a language they dont even speak, northover said.in europe, the weaker party may have room to maneuver. a new european union rule permits the first person to file a divorce petition to choose the jurisdiction, which can be a nasty su

57、rprise for a person who has lived for even a year in england. a lot of people are shopping around for the best deal and are catching their spouse unawares, northover said.of course, this kind of jurisdiction-hopping is more available to the rich. and, ironically, it can be the realization of great w

58、ealth that precipitates a divorce. before you were wealthy, life had limitations, knowles said. suddenly you have few limitations. before, snowboarding in the alps was a wish. now you can afford it. but the wife may decide she doesnt want to do it.so while a financial crisis may force a couple to pu

59、ll together, realizing a fortune may cause a couple to squabble about things that were not debatable before. the differences can lead to separate lives, and sometimes to divorce.when it comes to salt, no rights or wrongs.suppose, as some experts advise, that the new national dietary guidelines due this spring will lower t