二语习得期末复习资料

1、Chapter 1 introducing second language acquisition1. SLA: a term that refers both to the study of individuals and groups who are learning a language subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language.2. Second language: an officially or societally d

2、ominant language (not L1) needed for education, employment or other basic purposes3. Informal L2 learning: SLA that takes place in naturalistic contexts4. Formal L2 learning: instructed learning that takes place in classroom5. Linguistic competence: the underlying knowledge that a speaker/hearer hav

3、e of a language. Chomsky distinguishes this form linguistic performance.6. Linguistic performance: the use of language knowledge in actual production.7. First language/native language/mother tongue (L1): the language acquired in childhood8. Simultaneous multilingualism: ability to use one or more la

4、nguages that were auqired during early childhood.9. Sequential multilingualism: ability to use one or more languages that were learned after L1 had already been established.1. What are the three basic questions in SLA?(1) What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?(2) How does the L2 leaner acqui

5、re this knowledge?(3) Why are some learners more successful than others?2. Why there are no simple answers to these questions? (P2)Chapter 2 foundations of second language acquisition1. Multilingualism: the ability to use more than one language.2. Bilingualism: the ability to use two languages.3. Mo

6、nolingualism: the ability to use only one language.4. Multilingual competence: “the compound state of a mind with two or more grammars ”5. Monolingual competence: knowledge of only one language.6. Learner language: also called interlanguage which refers to the intermediate states or interim grammars

7、 of leaner language as it moves toward the target L2.7. Positive transfer: appropriate incorporation( 合并，编入 ) of an L1 structure or rule in L2 structure.8. Negative transfer: inappropriate influence of an L1 structure or rule in L2 use, also called interference.9. Fossilization: a stable state in SL

8、A where learners cease their interlanguage development before they reach target norms despite continuing L2 input and passage of time.10. Poverty-of-the-stimulus: the argument that because language input to children is impoverished( 穷尽的 ) and they still acquire L1, there must be an innate capacity f

9、or L1 acquisition.11. Innate capacity: a natural ability, usually referring to children s natural ability to learn or acquire language.1. What is the nature of language learning? Simultaneous/sequential multilingualism(2) The role of natural abilitya) Huma ns are born with a n atural ability or inn

10、ate capacity to lear n ano ther Ian guage.b) As childre n mature, so do their Ian guage abilities.c) In dividual variati on may occur in lear ning; the rate of lear ning can differ, but there are stages every one goes through.d) “ Cut off point ” - if the process does not happen at a young age, youl

11、l never learn theIan guage.(关键期假说)(Critical Period Hypothesis)(3) The role of social experieneea) Childre n will n ever acquire Ian guage uni ess that Ian guage is used with them and around them, no matter what is their Ian guage.b) As long as childre n are experie ncing in put and social in teract

12、ion, the rate and seque nee of developme nt does nt cha nge.c) The only thi ng that may cha nge is pronun ciati on, vocabulary, and social function.2. What are some basic similarities and differe nces in L1 and L2 lear ning? (P17 表格)(1) Similarities between L1 and L2a) Developme nt stagesIn itial St

13、ate - kno wledge about Ian guage structures and prin ciplesIn termediate State - Basic Ian guage developme ntFinal State - Outcome of lear ningb) Necessary con diti ons: In put(2) Differences between L1 and L2 ( P17 表格)3. What is fhe logical problem of Ianguage acquisition ”？(1) Childre n kn owledge

14、 of Ian guage goes bey ond what could be lear ned from the in put they receive. (Poverty-of-the stimulus)(2) Constraints and principles cannot be learned(3) Uni versal patter ns of developme nt cannot be expla ined by Ian guage-specific in put.(如果说普遍语法存在孩子们脑中，那语言输入起的作用又如何解释呢？)4. Framework for SLA(P2

15、 4&P26)Perspectives, foci, and frameworksperspectivefociframeworkLin guisticIn ternalTran sformati on al-Ge nerative GrammarPrin ciples and Parameters ModelMi ni malist Programexter nalFun ctio nalismpsychologyLan guahe and the brainNeuroli nguisticsLear ning processesInformation Processing Processa

16、bilityConn ectio nismIn dividual differe neeHuma ni stic modelsSocialMicrosocialVariation Theory Accomodati on TheorySociocultural TheoryMacrosocialEthno graphy of Communi cati onAcculturati on Theory Social Psychology5. Give at least three reas ons that many scie ntists believe in some inn ate capa

17、city for Ian guage(1) Childre n beg in to lear n their Ian guage at the same age, and in much the same way regardless of what the Ian guage is.(2) Childre n are n ot limited to repeat ing what they heard; they can un dersta nd and create no vel(新颖)uttera nee.(3) There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisi

18、ti on, bey ond which it can n ever be completed.6. Lin guists have take n an internal and exter nal focus to the study of Ian guage acquisiti on.What is the differe nee betwee n the two?The internal focus seeks to account for speakers internalized, underlying knowledge of Ian guage. The exter nal fo

19、cus emphasizes Ian guage use, in clud ing the functions of Ian guage which are realized in lear ners product ion at differe nt stages of developme nt.Chapter 3 the lin guistics of sec ond Ian guage acquisiti on1. In terfere nee: also called n egative tran sfer, which means in appropriate in flue nee

20、 of an L1 structure or rule in L2 use.2. In terla nguage: also called lear ner Ian guage, which refers to the in termediate states or in terim grammars of lea ner Ian guage as it moves toward the target L2.3. Natural order: a universal sequenee in the grammatical development of Ianguage learners.4.

21、Universal grammar: a linguistic framework developed most prominently by Chomsky which claims that L1 acquisiti ons can be acco un ted for only by inn ate kno wledge that the huma n species is gen etically en dowed with. This kno wledge in eludes what all la nguages have in com mon.5. Language facult

22、y: term used by Chomsky foe a “omponent of the human mind ” that accounts for children innate knowledge of Ianguage.6. Principles: properties(固有属性 )of all languages of the world; part of Chomskyuniversal grammar.7. Parameters: limited optio ns in realizati on of uni versal prin ciples which acco unt

23、 for grammatical variati on betwee n Ian guages of the world. Part of Chomsky theory of uni versal grammar.8. In itial state: the start ing point of Ian guage acquisiti on; it is thought to in elude theunderlying knowledge about Ianguage structures and principles that are in learners headsat the ver

24、y start of L1 or L2 acquisiti on.9. Final state: the outcome of L1 and L2 lear ning, also known as the stable state of adult grammar.10. Markedness: a basic for classification of Ianguages according to whether a specific featureoccurs more freque ntly tha n a con trast ing eleme nt in the same categ

25、ory, is less complex structurally or conceptually, or is morenormal or expected ” along some dimensions.11. Grammaticalization( 语法化):a developmental process in which a grammatical function( such as expressi on of past time) is first con veyed by shared extrali nguistickno wledge and inferencing base

26、d on the con text of discourse, the n by a lexical word(such as yesterday), and only later by a grammatical marker(such as the suffix -ed).The n ature of Ian guage1. What we lear n in lin guistic perspective? What are the characteristics of Ian guage? Both L1 and L2 learners acquire knowledge at the

27、se different levels: lexicon( 词汇学), phonology(语音学),morphology(构词法),syntax(句法).Languages are systemic, symbolic and social.Con trastive an alysis1. What is con trastive an alysis?CA is an approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting and explaining learner problems based on a comparison of L

28、1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.2. What is the goal of con trastive an alysis?(assumpti ons)(1) If L2 acquisiti on is disturbed by the habits of your n ative Ian guage, it is reas on able to focus on the differe nces betwee n n ative and target Ian guage.(2) Contrastive analysis h

29、ad a practical goal: If you recognize the differences between your n ative Ian guage and the target Ian guage, you are able to overcome thelin guistic habits of your n ative Ian guage that in terfere with the habits of the target Ian guage.3. What are the critiques of con trastive an alysis?(1) The

30、process of L2 acquisition is not sufficiently described by the characterization of errors.(2) Errors in L2 acquisition do not only arise from interferenee.(3) The structural differences between two Ianguages are not sufficient to predict the occurre nee of errors in L2 acquisiti on.Error an alysis1.

31、 What is error analysis ?EA is based on the description and analysis of actual learner errors in L2, rather than on idealized linguistic structures attributed to native speakers of L1 and L2 (as in CA).2. What is the differe nee between CA and EA?Con trastive an alysisError an alysisPedagogical orie

32、 ntatio nScien tific orie ntati onFocus on in put, practice, in ductive lear ningFocus on lin guistic and cog nitive processesErrors of tran sferMultiple types of errors3. What are the shortco mings of EA?(1) Ambiguity in classification.(不知道是具体是哪个原因导致比如时态错误，可能是一语影响，也可能是在一语中出现过的uni versal developme n

33、tal process)(2) Lack of positive data.(正确的被忽略，只关注错误不能看出学生学到什么)(3) Potential for avoidanee.(学生会避免错误，这样错误就不能全部被观察)四、In terla nguage1. What are the characteristics of in terla nguage?(1) Systematic.(2) Dynamic.(3) Variable.(可变性)although systematic, differe nces in con text result in differe nt patter n

34、s of Ian guage use.(4) Reduced system, both in form and function.(学习者经常会简单化 )2. There are differe nces betwee n IL developme nt and L1 acquisiti on, in cludi ng differe nt cog nitive processes in volved:(1) Language transfer from L1 to L2.(2) Transfer training.(3) Strategies of second Ianguage learn

35、ing.(避免等)(4) Strategies of second Ianguage learning.(为方便不要复数等 )(5) Overgeneralization of the target Ianguage linguistic material.3. The begi nning and the end of IL are defi ned respectively as whe never a lear ner firstattempts to convey meaning in the L2 and whenever developmentpermanently ” stops

36、,but the boundaries are not entirely clear. Identification of fossilization is even morecon troversial.五、Mon itor model (The in put hypothesis model)1. Which five hypotheses(假定)does the model consist of?(课本 P45! ！ ！)(1) Acquisition-learning hypothesis(2) Monitor hypothesis(3) Natural order hypothesi

37、s(4) In put hypothesis(5) Affective filter hypothesis2. What is LAD in this model?The LAD is made up of the natural Ianguage learning abilities of the human mind, totally available in L1 acquisition, available in L2 acquisition according to the level of the filter.But, the process of lear ning, un l

38、ike the process of acquisiti on, uses faculties of mind outside the LAD.3. 图示Learntknowledge(Monitoring)Comporehensible； inputLanguageAcquisitionDevice (LAD)Acquired knowledge-.OutputAffectivefilter4. What are points of the consen sus of early lin guistic study of SLA?(1) What is being acquired thro

39、ugh a dynamic interlanguage system(2) How SLA takes place involves creative mental processes(3) Why some learners are more successful than others relates primary to the age.5. What is the role of grammar accord ing to Krashe n?The only in sta nee in which the teach ing of grammar can result in Ian g

40、uage acquisiti on (and proficiency) is when the students are interested in the subject and the target Ianguage is used as a medium of instruction.六、Un iversal grammar1. Differen ces of lin guistic compete nee and performa nce( 见 Chapter1 名词解释 )2. What is UG?(名词解释)3. UG and L1 acquisiti on(1) What th

41、e child acquire is selecting parametric options.(2) Un like SLA, attitudes, motivati ons and social con text play no role.4. UG and SLA, there are three importa nt questi ons(1) What is the initial state of SAL?Interference(看参数相同不相同 );no agreement on access to UG(2) What is the nature of IL and how

42、does it change over time?定参数的过程 Language faculty; positive/negative evidence( 起作用); con structi oni sm; fossilizatio n(3) What is the final state in SLA?(P52 五个达不到的原因)七、Functional approaches (systemic lin guistics)1. What are the four functional approaches?They are Systemic Linguistics; Functional T

43、ypology; Function-to-formmapping;Information organization.2. What is Systemic Linguistics(系统功能语言学)？Developed by Hilliday in the late 1950s, it is a model for analyzing Ianguage in terms of the in terrelated systems of choices that are available for express ing meaning.儿童的语言体系是一个意义体系，语言是从意义体系逐渐发展而来，经

44、历过有简单 到复杂的过程。不同有不同意义，根据需要选择最佳的(红绿灯)。3. What acquire by Ian guage lear ners is meaning pote ntial. There are seve n fun ctio ns of la nguage. (P53)4. Systemic lin guists adva nee four theoretical claims about Ian guage:a) That la nguage use is fun cti on al;b) That its function is to make meanin gs;c

45、) That these meanings are in flue need by the social and con text in which they are exchanged.d) That the process of using Ian guage is a semiotic process, a process of making meanings by choos ing.5. All of the functional approaches discussed here basically agree on the follow ing:a) What is being

46、acquired in SLA is a system for conveying meaning,b) How Ian guage is acquired importa ntly in volves creative lear ner in volveme nt in com muni cati on, andc) Un dersta nding of SLA processes is impossible if they are isolated from circumsta nces of use.Chapter 4 the psychology of sec ond Ian guag

47、e acquisiti on1. Lateralization: different specification of two halves of the brain. For example, the left hemisphere becomes specialized for most la nguage activity, many believe duri ng a criticalperiod for language development.2. Critical period hypothesis( 临界期假设 ): the claim that children have t

48、he only a limited number of years during which they can acquire their L1 flawlessly; if they suffer brain damage to the language areas, brain plasticity in childhood would allow other areas of the brain to take over the language functions of the damaged area, but beyond a certain age, normal languag

49、e development would not be possible. This concept is commonly extended to SLA as well, in the claim that only children are likely to achieve native or near-native proficiency in L2.3. Information processing (IP): a cognitive framework which assumes that SLA (like learning of other domains) proceeds

50、from control to automatic processing and involves progressive reorganization of knowledge.4. Controlled processing: r an initial stage of the learning process that demands learner s attention.5. Automatic processing: after an initial stage of control processing, automatic processing is a stage in le

51、arning that requires less mental “space”and attention effort on the learner s part.6. Reconstructing: the reorganization of knowledge that take place in the central processing stage of information processing.7. Input: whatever sample of L2 leaner expose to.8. Output: in SLA, the language that learne

52、rs produce in speech/sign or in writing.9. U-shaped development: a sequence of acquisition for elements of both L1 and L2 where learner use an initially correct form such as plural feet, then an incorrect foots. Finally, learners return to feet when they begin to acquire exceptions to the plural inf

53、lection rule.10. Connectionism: a cognitive framework for explaining learning processes, beginning in the 1980s and becoming increasingly influential. It assumes that SLA results from increasing strength of associations between stimulus and response.11. Aptitude: an individual set of characteristics

54、 which correlate with success in language learning.12. Motivation: a need and desire to learn.13. Cognitive style: an individual s preferred way of processing: i.e. of perceiving, conceptualizing, organizing and recalling information.14. Learning strategies: the behavior and techniques that individu

55、als adopt in the efforts to learn L2.1. In psychological respective, what are the three foci? What is stressed in each? First, it focus on language and brain, addressing what is being acquired in a physical sense; second, it focuses on the learning process (IP and connectionism), addressing how acqu

56、isition takes place. Finally, it focuses on the differences on learners, addressing the question of why some L2 learners are more successful than others.2. It appears that L1 and L2 are stored in somewhat different areas of the brain, and the right hemisphere might be more involved in L2 than L1. Ag

57、e/less plasticity; how independent are the languages of multilingual speakers? (coordinate, compound and subordinate)3. What are the three stages of IP? What must learners do to make input available for processing?They are input, central processing and output. (Central processing is the heart of the

58、 model,where learning occurs, from controlled to automatic processing and where reconstructing takes place.）| Learners must notice or pay attention to input to make it available for processing; this kind of input is called intake .| Swain contends that output is necessary for successful L2 learning because it helps develop automaticity through practice and because it helps learners notice in their own knowledge. （ 区别于 monitor m