建筑学Modern-Architecture现代建筑大学毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文

1、毕业设计（论文） 外文文献翻译文献、资料中文题目：现文献、资料英文题目：Modern Architecture文献、资料来源：文献、资料发表（出版）日期： 院（部）:专 业： 班 级： 姓 名： 学 号： 指导教师：翻译日期： 2017.02.14建筑学毕业设计的外文文献及译文文献、资料题目： Adva need En cryption Sta ndard文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2004.10.25外文文献:Modern ArchitectureModer n architecture, not to be con fused with con temporary architecture

2、, is a term give n to a nu mber of buildi ng styles with similar characteristics, primarily the simplificatio n of form and the elim in ati on of orn ame nt. While the style was con ceived early in the 20th cen tury and heavily promoted by a few architects, architectural educators and exhibits, very

3、 few Moder n build ings were built in the first half of the cen tury. For three decades after the Second World War, however, it became the dominant architectural style for in stituti onal and corporate buildi ng.1. Origi nsSome historia ns see the evoluti on of Moder n architecture as a social matte

4、r, closely tied to the project of Modernity and hence to the Enlightenment, a result of social and political revoluti ons.Others see Moder n architecture as primarily drive n by tech no logical and engin eeri ng developments, and it is true that the availability of new building materials such as iro

5、n, steel, con crete and glass drove the inven ti on of new buildi ng tech niq ues as part of the In dustrial Revoluti on. In 1796, Shrewsbury mill owner Charles Bage first used his fireproof relied on cast iron and brick with flag stone floors. Such con struct ion greatly stre ngthe ned the structur

6、e of mills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poor kno wledge of irons properties as a con struct ion material, a nu mber of early mills collapsed. It was not un til the early 1830s that Eat on Hodgk inson in troduced the secti on beam, lead ing to widespread use of iron

7、 con structi on, this kind of austere in dustrial architecture utterly tran sformed the Ian dscape of n orther n Britai n, leadi ng to the descripti on, Dark sata nic mills of places like Man chester and parts of West Yorkshire. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxt on at the Great Exhibiti on of 1851 w

8、as an early example of iron and glass con structi on; possibly the best example is the developme nt of the tall steel skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan. Early structures to employ concrete as the chief means of architectural expressi on (rather tha n for

9、 purely utilitaria n structure) in clude Frank Lloyd Wrights Un ity Temple, built in 1906 n ear Chicago, and Rudolf Stein ers Second Goethea num, built from1926 near Basel, Switzerla nd.Other historia ns regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reacti on aga inst eclecticism and the lavish stylistic

10、 excesses of Victoria n Era and Edwardia n Art Nouveau.Whatever the cause, around 1900 a nu mber of architects around the world bega n develop ing new architectural solutions to integrate traditional precedents (Gothic, for instanee) with new tech no logical possibilities. The work of Louis Sulliva

11、n and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, Victor Horta in Brussels, An to ni Gaudi in Barcel ona, Otto Wag ner in Vienna and Charles Renn ie Mack in tosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be see n as a com mon struggle betwee n old and n ew.2. Modernism as Dominant StyleBy the 1920s the most important f

12、igures in Modern architecture had established their reputati ons. The big three are commo nly recog ni zed as Le Corbusier in Fran ce, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany. Mies van der Rohe and Gropius were both directors of the Bauhaus, one of a nu mber of Europea n schools a

13、nd associati ons concerned with recon cili ng craft traditi on and in dustrial tech no logy.Frank Lloyd Wrights career parallels and in flue nces the work of the Europea n moder ni sts, particularly via the Wasmuth Portfolio, but he refused to be categorized with them. Wright was a major in flue nee

14、 on both Gropius and van der Rohe, however, as well as on the whole of orga nic architecture.In 1932 came the important MOMA exhibition, the International Exhibition of Modern Architecture, curated by Philip Joh nson. Joh nson and collaborator Hen ry-Russell Hitchcock drew together many distinet thr

15、eads and trends, identified them as stylistically similar and having a com mon purpose, and con solidated them into the Intern ati onal Style.This was an importa nt tur ning point. With World War II the importa nt figures of the Bauhaus fled to the Un ited States, to Chicago, to the Harvard Graduate

16、 School of Desig n, and to Black Mountain College. While Modern architectural design never became a dominant style in sin gle-dwelli ng reside ntial build in gs, in in stituti onal and commercial architecture Modernism became the pre-em inent, and in the schools (for leaders of the professi on) the

17、only acceptable, design solution from about 1932 to about 1984.Architects who worked in the intern ati onal style wan ted to break with architectural traditi on and desig n simple, unorn ame nted build in gs. The most com monly used materials are glass for the facade, steel for exterior support, and

18、 concrete for the floors and interior supports; floor plans were fun cti onal and logical. The style became most evide nt in the desig n of skyscrapers. Perhaps its most famous mani festati ons in clude the Un ited Nati ons headquarters(Le Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer, Sir Howard Roberts on), the Seagr

19、am Buildi ng (Ludwig Mies van der Rohe), and Lever House (Skidmore, Owi ngs, and Merrill), all in New York. A prominent reside ntial example is the Lovell House (Richard Neutra) in Los An geles.Detractors of the international style claim that its stark, uncompromisingly rectangular geometry is dehum

20、a nising. Le Corbusier once described build ings as mach ines for liv in g, but people are not mach ines and it was suggested that they do not want to live in mach in es. Even Philip Joh nson admitted he was bored with the box. Si nee the early 1980s many architects have deliberately sought to move

21、away from rectili near desig ns, towards more eclectic styles. During the middle of the century, some architects began experimenting in organic forms that they felt were more human and accessible. Mid-century modernism, or organic modernism, was very popular, due to its democratic and playful n atur

22、e. Alvar Aalto and Eero Saari nen were two of the most prolific architects and desig ners in this moveme nt, which has in flue need con temporary moder ni sm.Although there is debate as to whe n and why the decli ne of the moder n moveme nt occurred, criticism of Moder n architecture bega n in the 1

23、960s on the grounds that it was uni versal, sterile, elitist and lacked meaning. Its approach had become ossified in a style that threatened to dege nerate into a set of mann erisms. Siegfried Giedi on in the 1961 in troduct ion to his evo Iving text, Space, Time and Architecture (first writte n in

24、1941), could beg in At the mome nt a certa in con fusi on exists in con temporary architecture, as in painting; a kind of pause, eve n a kind of exhaustion. At the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a 1961 symposium discussed the question Moder n Architecture: Death or Metamorphosis? In New York, the coup

25、d t(at appeared to materialize in con troversy around the Pan Am Buildi ng that loomed over Grand Central Statio n, taking advantage of the modernist real estate concept of air rights,1 In criticism by Ada Louise Huxtable and Douglas Haskell it was see n to sever the Park Ave nue streetscapea nd tar

26、 ni sh the reputati ons of its con sortium of architects: Walter Gropius, Pietro Belluschi and the builders Emery Roth & Sons. The rise of postmoder nism was attributed to dise ncha ntme nt with Modern architecture. By the 1980s, postmodern architecture appeared triumphant over modernism, including

27、the temple of the Light of the World, a futuristic design for its time Guadalajara Jalisco La Luz del Mundo Sede Intern ati on al; however, postmoder n aesthetics lacked tract ion and by the mid-1990s, a n eo-moder n (or hypermoder n) architecture had once aga in established intern ati onal pre-em i

28、nen ce. As part of this revival, much of the criticism of the modernists has bee n revisited, refuted, and re-evaluated; and a moder ni stic idiom once aga in domin ates in in stituti onal and commercial con temporary practice, but must now compete with the revival of traditi onal architectural desi

29、g n in commercial and in stituti onal architecture; reside ntial desig n continues to be domin ated by a traditi onal aesthetic.中文译文:现代建筑现代建筑，不被混淆与当代建筑，是一个词给了一些建筑风格有类似的特点，主要 的简化形式，消除装饰等.虽然风格的设想早在20世纪,并大量造就了一些建筑师、建筑教 育家和展品，很少有现代的建筑物，建于20世纪上半叶.第二次大战后的三十年，但最终 却成为主导建筑风格的机构和公司建设.1起源一些历史学家认为进化的现代建筑作为一个社会问

30、题，息息相关的工程中的现代性，从而影响了启蒙运动，导致社会和政治革命.另一些人认为现代建筑主要是靠技术和工程学的发展，那就是获得新的建筑材料，如钢铁,混凝土和玻璃驱车发明新的建筑技术,它作为工业革命的一部分.1796 年，Shrewsbury查尔斯bage首先用他的火的设计,后者则依靠铸铁及砖与石材地板.这些 建设大大加强了结构，使它们能够容纳更大的机器.由于作为建筑材料特性知识缺乏，一些 早期建筑失败.直到1830年初,伊顿Hodgk in son预计推出了型钢梁,导致广泛使用钢架建 设，工业结构完全改变了这种窘迫的面貌，英国北部领导的描述，黑暗魔鬼作坊的地方如 曼彻斯特和西约克郡.水晶宫由

31、约瑟夫paxton的重大展览,1851年，是一个早期的例子, 钢铁及玻璃 施工；可能是一个最好的例子,就是1890年由William乐男爵 延长和路易沙 利文在芝加哥附近发展的高层钢结构摩天楼.早期结构采用混凝土作为行政手段的建筑表 达（而非纯粹功利结构）,包括建于1906年在芝加哥附近，劳埃德赖特的统一宫,建于1926 年瑞士巴塞尔附近的鲁道夫斯坦纳的第二哥特堂,.但无论原因为何，约有1900多位建筑师，在世界各地开始制定新的建筑方法，将传统 的先例（比如哥特式）与新的技术相结合的可能性.路易沙利文和赖特在芝加哥工作，维克多 奥尔塔在布鲁塞尔，安东尼高迪在巴塞罗那，奥托瓦格纳和查尔斯景 ma

32、ckintosh格拉斯哥 在维也纳，其中之一 可以看作是一个新与旧的共同斗争.2现代主义风格由1920年代的最重要人物，在现代建筑里确立了自己的名声.三个是公认的柯布西耶在法国，密斯范德尔德罗和瓦尔特格罗皮乌斯在德国密斯范德尔德罗和格罗皮乌斯为董 事的包豪斯，其中欧洲有不少学校和有关团体学习调和工艺和传统工业技术.赖特的建筑生涯中，也影响了欧洲建筑的现代艺术，特别是通过瓦斯穆特组合但他拒绝被归类与他们.赖特与格罗皮乌斯和Van der德罗对整个有机体系有重大的影响.在1932年来到的重要moma展览,是现代建筑艺术的国际展览,艺术家菲利普约翰逊. 约翰逊和合作者亨利-罗素阁纠集许多鲜明的线索和趋势，内容相似，有一个共同的目的， 巩固了他们融入国际化风格这是一个重要的转折点.在二战的时间包豪斯的代表人物逃到美国，芝加哥，到哈佛大 学设计黑山书院当现代建筑设计从未成为主导风格单一的住宅楼，在成为现代卓越的体 制和商业建筑，是