一个互联网的内部工作指南外文翻译

1、一个互联网的内部工作指南外文翻译 毕业论文(设计)外文翻译外文原文an insiders guide to the internet david d. clark m.i.t. computer science and artificial intelligence laboratoryversion 2.0 7/25/04 almost everyone has heard of the internet. we cruise the web, we watch the valuation of internet companies on the stock market, and we r

2、ead the pundits predictions about what will happen next. but not many people actually understand what it is and how it works. take away the hype, and the basic operation of the internet is rather simple. here, in a few pages, is an overview of how it works inside, and why it works the way it doesdon

3、t forget?the internet is not the world wide web, or e-mail. the internet is what is “underneath” them, and makes them all happen. this paper describes what the internet itself is, and also tells what actually happens, for example, when you click on a link in a web page1. introduction to the internet

4、 the internet is a communications facility designed to connect computers together so that they can exchange digital information. for this purpose, the internet provides a basic communication service that conveys units of information, called packets, from a source computer attached to the internet to

5、 one or more destination computers attached to the internet. additionally, the internet provides supporting services such as the naming of the attached computers. a number of high-level services or applications have been designed and implemented making use of this basic communication service, includ

6、ing the world wide web, internet e-mail, the internet "newsgroups", distribution of audio and video information, and file transfer and "login" between distant computers. the design of the internet is such that new high-level services can be designed and deployed in the futurethe

7、internet differs in important ways from the networks in other communications industries such as telephone, radio or television. in those industries, the communications infrastructure-wires, fibers, transmission towers and so on?has been put in place to serve a specific application. it may seem obvio

8、us that the telephone system was designed to carry telephone calls, but the internet had no such clear purpose. to understand the role of the internet, consider the personal computer, or pc. the pc was not designed for one application, such as word processing or spreadsheets, but is instead a genera

9、l-purpose device, specialized to one use or another by the later addition of software. the internet is a network designed to connect computers together, and shares this same design goal of generality. the internet is a network designed to support a range of applications, depending on what software i

10、s loaded into the attached computers, and what use that software makes of the internet. many communication patterns are possible: between pairs of computers, from a server to many clients, or among a group of co-operating computers. the internet is designed to support all these modesthe internet is

11、not a specific communication “technology”, such as fiber optics or radio. it makes use of these and other technologies in order to get packets from place to place. it was intentionally designed to allow as many technologies as possible to be exploited as part of the internet, and to incorporate new

12、technologies as they are invented. in the early days of the internet, it was deployed using technologies e.g. telephone circuits originally designed and installed for other purposes. as the internet has matured,we see the design of communication technologies such as ethernet and 802.11 wireless that

13、 are tailored specifically to the needs of the internet?they were designed from the ground up to carry packets2. separation of function if the internet is not a specific communications technology, nor for a specific purpose, what is it? technically, its core is a very simple and minimal specificatio

14、n that describes its basic communication model. figure 1 provides a framework that is helpful in understanding how the internet is defined. at the top of the figure, there is a wide range of applications. at the bottom is a wide range of technologies for wide area and local area communications. the

15、design goal of the internet was to allow this wide range of applications to take advantage of all these technologiesthe heart of the internet is the definition of a very simple service model between the applications and the technologies. the designer of each application does not need to know the det

16、ails of each technology, but only this basic communication service. the designer of each technology must support this service, but need not know about the individual applications. in this way, the details of the applications and the details of the technologies are separated, so that each can evolve

17、independently21the basic communication model of the internet the basic service model for packet delivery is very simple. it contains two parts: the addresses and the delivery contract. to implement addressing, the internet has numbers that identify end points, similar to the telephone system, and th

18、e sender identifies the destination of a communication using these numbers. the delivery contract specifies what the sender can expect when it hands data over to the internet for delivery. the original delivery contract of the internet is that the internet will do its best to deliver all the data gi

19、ven to it for carriage, but makes no commitment as to data rate, delivery delay, or loss rates. this service is called the best effort delivery modelthis very indefinite and non-committal delivery contract has both benefit and risk. the benefit is that almost any underlying technology can implement

20、it. the risk of this vague contract is that applications cannot be successfully built on top of it. however, the demonstrated range of applications that have been deployed over the internet suggests that it is adequate in practice. as is discussed below, this simple service model does have limits, a

21、nd it is being extended to deal with new objectives such as real time delivery of audio and video22layering, not integrationthe design approach of the internet is a common one in computer science: provide a simplified view of complex technology by hiding that technology underneath an interface that

22、provides an abstraction of the underlying technology. this approach is often called layering. in contrast, networks such as the telephone system are more integrated. in the telephone system, designers of the low level technology, knowing that the purpose is to carry telephone calls, make decisions t

23、hat optimize that goal in all parts of the system. the internet is not optimized to any one application; rather the goal is generality, flexibility and evolvability. innovation can occur at the technology level independent of innovation at the application level, and this is one of the means to insur

24、e that the internet can evolve rapidly enough to keep pace with the rate of innovation in the computer industry23protocols the word protocol is used to refer to the conventions and standards that define how each layer of the internet operates. the internet layer discussed above is specified in a doc

25、ument that defines the format of the packet headers, the control messages that can be sent, and so on. this set of definitions is called the internet protocol, or ipdifferent bodies have created the protocols that specify the different parts of the internet. the internet engineering task force, an o

26、pen working group that has grown up along with the internet, created the internet protocol and the other protocols that define the basic communication service of the internet. this group also developed the protocols for early applications such as e-mail. some protocols are defined by academic and in

27、dustry consortia; for example the protocols that specify the world wide web are mostly developed by the world wide web consortium the w3c hosted at the computer science and artificial intelligence laboratory at mit. these protocols, once developed, are then used as the basis of products that are sol

28、d to the various entities involved in the deployment and operation of the internet.3. forwarding data?the internet layer 31the packet model data carried across the internet is organized into packets, which are independent units of data, no more than some specified length 1000 to 2000 bytes is typica

29、l, complete with delivery information attached. an application program on a computer that needs to deliver data to another computer invokes software that breaks that data into some number of packets and transmits these packets one at a time into the internet. the most common version of the software

30、that does this is called transmission control protocol, or tcp; it is discussed below. the internet consists of a series of communication links connected by relay points called routers. figure 2 illustrates this conceptual representation. as figure 3 illustrates, the communication links that connect

31、 routers in the internet can be of many sorts, as emphasized by the hourglass. they all share the basic function that they can transport a packet from one router to another. at each router, the delivery information in the packet, called the header, is examined, and based on the destination address,

32、a determination is made as to where to send the packet next. this processing and forwarding of packets is the basic communication service of the internettypically, a router is a computer, either general purpose or specially designed for this role, running software and hardware that implements the fo

33、rwarding functions. a high-performance router used in the interior of the internet may be a very expensive and sophisticated device, while a router used in a small business or at other points near the edge of the network may be a small unit costing less than a hundred dollars. whatever the price and

34、 performance, all routers perform the same basic communication function of forwarding packetsa reasonable analogy to this process is the handling of mail by the post office or a commercial package handler. every piece of mail carries a destination address, and proceeds in a series of hops using diff

35、erent technologies e.g. truck, plane, or letter carrier. after each hop, the address is examined to determine the next hop to take. to emphasize this analogy, the delivery process in the internet is called datagram delivery. while the post-office analogy is imperfect in a number of ways, it illustra

36、tes a number of other features of the internet: the post office carries out other services to support the customer besides the simple transport of letters, and the transport of letter requires that they sometimes cross jurisdictional boundaries, in particular between countries32details of packet pro

37、cessingthis section discusses in more detail the packet forwarding process introduced in the previous section.the information relevant to packet forwarding by the router is contained in a part of the packet headercalled the internet header. each separate piece of the header is called a field of the

38、header. the importantfields in the internet header are as follows:source address: the internet address of the origin of the packet.destination address: the internet address of the destination of the packet.length: the number of bytes in the packet.fragmentation information: in some cases, a packet m

39、ust be broken into smaller packets to complete itsprogress across the internet. several fields are concerned with this function, which is not discussed here.header checksum: an error on the communications link might change the value of one of the bits in thepacket, in particular in the internet head

40、er itself. this could alter important information such as the destination address. to detect this, a mathematical computation is performed by the source of the packet tocompute a checksum, which is a 16-bit value derived from all the other fields in the header. if any one ofthe bits in the header is

41、 modified, the checksum computation will yield a different value with highprobability.hop count: technically known as the "time to live" field. in rare cases, a packet may not proceed directlytowards the destination, but may get caught in a loop, where it could travel repeatedly among a se

42、ries of routers. to detect this situation, the packet carries an integer, which is decremented at each router. if this value is decremented to zero, the packet is discardedprocessing in the router the processing of the packet by each router along the route from source to destination proceeds as foll

43、ows, each step closely related to the fields discussed above1 the packet is received by the router from one of the attached communications links, and stored in the memory of the router until it can be processed. when it is this packets turn to be processed, the router proceeds as follows2 the router

44、 performs the checksum computation, and compares the resulting value with the value placed in the packet by the source. if the two values do not match, the router assumes that some bits in the internet header of the packet have been damaged, and the packet is discarded. if the checksum is correct, t

45、he router proceeds as follows3 the router reads the hop count in the packet, and subtracts one from it. if this leads to a result of zero, the packet is discarded. if not, this decremented value is put back in the packet, and the checksum is changed to reflect this altered value4 the router reads th

46、e destination address from the packet, and consults a table the forwarding table to determine on which of the communications links attached to the router the packet should next be sent. the router places the packet on the transmission queue for that link5 when the packet reaches the head of the tran

47、smission queue, the router transmits the packet across the associated communications link, towards either a next router, or towards the computer that is the final destination of the packetprocessing in the source and destination computers the source and destination computers are also concerned with

48、the fields in the internet header of the packet, but the operations are a little differentthe source computer creates the internet header in the packet, filling in all the fields with the necessary values. the source must have determined the correct destination address to put in the packet see the d

49、iscussion on the domain name system, below, and, using rules that have been specified, must select a suitable hop count to put in the packetthe destination computer verifies the values in the header, including the checksum and the source address. it then makes use of an additional field in the inter

50、net header that is not relevant when the router forwards the packet: the next-level protocol fieldas discussed above, packets carried across the internet can be used for a number of purposes, and depending on the intended use, one or another intermediate level protocol will be used to further proces

51、s the packet. the most common protocol is transmission control protocol, or tcp, discussed below; other examples include user datagram protocol, or udp, and real time protocol, or rtp. depending on which protocol is being used, the packet must be handed off to one or another piece of software in the

52、 destination computer, and the next-level protocol field in the internet header is used to specify which such software is to be usedinternet control messages when some abnormal situation arises, a router along a path from a sender to a receiver may send a packet with a control message back to the or

53、iginal sender of the packet. this can happen when the hop count goes to zero and the packet is discarded, and in certain other circumstances when an error occurs and a packet is lost. it is not the case that every lost packet generates a control message-the sender is supposed to use an error recover

54、y mechanism such as the one in tcp, discussed below, to deal with lost packets33packet headers and layersthe internet header is not the only sort of header information in the packet. the information in the packet header is organized into several parts, which correspond to the layers, or protocols, in the internet de