二语习得期末复习资料

1、chapter 1 introducing second language acquisition 1.sla: a term that refers both to the study of individuals and groups who are learning a language subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language. 2.second language:an officially or societally do

2、minant language (not l1) needed for education, employment or other basic purposes 3.informal l2 learning: sla that takes place in naturalistic contexts 4.formal l2 learning: instructed learning that takes place in classroom 5.linguistic competence: the underlying knowledge that a speaker/hearer have

3、 of a language. chomsky distinguishes this form linguistic performance. 6.linguistic performance: the use of language knowledge in actual production. 7.first language/native language/mother tongue (l1): the language acquired in childhood 8.simultaneous multilingualism:ability to use one or more lang

4、uages that were auqired during early childhood. 9.sequential multilingualism: ability to use one or more languages that were learned after l1 had already been established. 1.what are the three basic questions in sla? (1) what exactly does the l2 learner come to know? (2) how does the l2 leaner acqui

5、re this knowledge? (3) why are some learners more successful than others? 2.why there are no simple answers to these questions? (p2) chapter 2 foundations of second language acquisition 1.multilingualism: the ability to use more than one language. 2.bilingualism: the ability to use two languages. 3.

6、monolingualism: the ability to use only one language. 4.multilingual competence: “ the compound state of a mind with two or more grammars”5.monolingual competence: knowledge of only one language. 6.learner language: also called interlanguage which refers to the intermediate states or interim grammar

7、s of leaner language as it moves toward the target l2. 7.positive transfer: appropriate incorporation( 合并，编入 ) of an l1 structure or rule in l2 structure. 8.negative transfer: inappropriate influence of an l1 structure or rule in l2 use, also called interference. 9.fossilization: a stable state in s

8、la where learners cease their interlanguage development before they reach target norms despite continuing l2 input and passage of time. 10.poverty-of-the-stimulus:the argument that because language input to children is impoverished( 穷尽的 ) and they still acquire l1, there must be an innate capacity f

9、or l1 acquisition. 11.innate capacity: a natural ability, usually referring to children s natural ability to learn or acquire language. 1.what is the nature of language learning? (1) simultaneous/sequential multilingualism (2) the role of natural ability a)humans are born with a natural ability or i

10、nnate capacity to learn another language. b)as children mature, so do their language abilities. c)individual variation may occur in learning; the rate of learning can differ, but there are stages everyone goes through. d)“cut off point ”- if the process does not happen at a young age, youll never le

11、arn the language. （关键期假说）(critical period hypothesis) (3) the role of social experience a)children will never acquire language unless that language is used with them and around them, no matter what is their language. b)as long as children are experiencing input and social interaction, the rate and s

12、equence of development doesnt change. c)the only thing that may change is pronunciation, vocabulary, and social function. 2.what are some basic similarities and differences in l1 and l2 learning? (p17表格 ) (1) similarities between l1 and l2 a)development stages initial state - knowledge about languag

13、e structures and principles intermediate state - basic language development final state - outcome of learning b)necessary conditions: input (2) differences between l1 and l2 （p17 表格）3.what is “ the logical problem of language acquisition” ? (1) children s knowledge of language goes beyond what could

14、 be learned from the input they receive. (poverty-of-the stimulus) (2) constraints and principles cannot be learned (3) universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specific input. (如果说普遍语法存在孩子们脑中，那语言输入起的作用又如何解释呢？) 4.framework for sla(p24&p26) perspectives, foci, and framewo

15、rks perspective foci framework linguistic internal transformational-generative grammar principles and parameters model minimalist program external functionalism psychology languahe and the brain neurolinguistics learning processes information processing processability connectionism individual differ

16、ence humanistic models social microsocial variation theory accomodation theory sociocultural theory macrosocialethnography of communication acculturation theory social psychology 5.give at least three reasons that many scientists believe in some innate capacity for language (1)children begin to lear

17、n their language at the same age, and in much the same way regardless of what the language is. (2)children are not limited to repeating what they heard; they can understand and create novel(新颖 ) utterance. (3)there is a cut-off age for l1 acquisition, beyond which it can never be completed. 6.lingui

18、sts have taken an internal and external focus to the study of language acquisition. what is the difference between the two? the internal focus seeks to account for speakers internalized, underlying knowledge of language. the external focus emphasizes language use, including the functions of language

19、 which are realized in learners production at different stages of development. chapter 3 the linguistics of second language acquisition 1.interference: also called negative transfer, which means inappropriate influence of an l1 structure or rule in l2 use. 2.interlanguage: also called learner langua

20、ge, which refers to the intermediate states or interim grammars of leaner language as it moves toward the target l2. 3.natural order: a universal sequence in the grammatical development of language learners. 4.universal grammar: a linguistic framework developed most prominently by chomsky which clai

21、ms that l1 acquisitions can be accounted for only by innate knowledge that the human species is genetically endowed with. this knowledge includes what all languages have in common. 5.language faculty: term used by chomsky foe a “ component of the human mind” that accounts for children s innate knowl

22、edge of language. 6.principles: properties( 固有属性 ) of all languages of the world; part of chomsky s universal grammar. 7.parameters: limited options in realization of universal principles which account for grammatical variation between languages of the world. part of chomskys theory of universal gra

23、mmar. 8.initial state: the starting point of language acquisition; it is thought to include the underlying knowledge about language structures and principles that are in learners heads at the very start of l1 or l2 acquisition. 9.final state: the outcome of l1 and l2 learning, also known as the stab

24、le state of adult grammar. 10.markedness: a basic for classification of languages according to whether a specific feature occurs more frequently than a contrasting element in the same category, is less complex structurally or conceptually, or is more “ normal ” or “ expected” along some dimensions.

25、11.grammaticalization( 语法化 ): a developmental process in which a grammatical function(such as expression of past time) is first conveyed by shared extralinguistic knowledge and inferencing based on the context of discourse, then by a lexical word(such as yesterday), and only later by a grammatical m

26、arker(such as the suffix -ed). 一、the nature of language 1.what we learn in linguistic perspective? what are the characteristics of language? both l1 and l2 learners acquire knowledge at these different levels: lexicon(词汇学 ), phonology( 语音学 ), morphology( 构词法 ), syntax(句法 ). languages are systemic, s

27、ymbolic and social. 二、contrastive analysis 1.what is contrastive analysis? ca is an approach to the study of sla which involves predicting and explaining learner problems based on a comparison of l1 and l2 to determine similarities and differences. 2.what is the goal of contrastive analysis?(assumpt

28、ions) (1) if l2 acquisition is disturbed by the habits of your native language, it is reasonable to focus on the differences between native and target language. (2) contrastive analysis had a practical goal: if you recognize the differences between your native language and the target language, you a

29、re able to overcome the linguistic habits of your native language that interfere with the habits of the target language. 3.what are the critiques of contrastive analysis? (1) the process of l2 acquisition is not sufficiently described by the characterization of errors. (2) errors in l2 acquisition d

30、o not only arise from interference. (3) the structural differences between two languages are not sufficient to predict the occurrence of errors in l2 acquisition. 三、error analysis 1.what is error analysis ？ea is based on the description and analysis of actual learner errors in l2, rather than on ide

31、alized linguistic structures attributed to native speakers of l1 and l2 (as in ca). 2.what is the difference between ca and ea? contrastive analysis error analysis pedagogical orientation scientific orientation focus on input, practice, inductive learning focus on linguistic and cognitive processes

32、errors of transfer multiple types of errors 3.what are the shortcomings of ea? (1) ambiguity in classification. ( 不知道是具体是哪个原因导致比如时态错误，可能是一语影响，也可能是在一语中出现过的universal developmental process) (2) lack of positive data. (正确的被忽略，只关注错误不能看出学生学到什么) (3) potential for avoidance. ( 学生会避免错误，这样错误就不能全部被观察) 四、interl

33、anguage 1.what are the characteristics of interlanguage? (1) systematic. (2) dynamic. (3) variable.(可变性 ) although systematic, differences in context result in different patterns of language use. (4) reduced system, both in form and function. ( 学习者经常会简单化) 2.there are differences between il developme

34、nt and l1 acquisition, including different cognitive processes involved: (1) language transfer from l1 to l2. (2) transfer training. (3) strategies of second language learning. (避免等 ) (4) strategies of second language learning. (为方便不要复数等) (5) overgeneralization of the target language linguistic mate

35、rial. 3.the beginning and the end of il are defined respectively as whenever a learner first attempts to convey meaning in the l2 and whenever development “ permanently ” stops, but the boundaries are not entirely clear. identification of fossilization is even more controversial. 五、monitor model (th

36、e input hypothesis model) 1.which five hypotheses( 假定 ) does the model consist of? ( 课本 p45！ ！ ！ ) (1) acquisition-learning hypothesis (2) monitor hypothesis (3) natural order hypothesis (4) input hypothesis (5) affective filter hypothesis 2.what is lad in this model? the lad is made up of the natur

37、al language learning abilities of the human mind, totally available in l1 acquisition, available in l2 acquisition according to the level of the filter. but, the process of learning, unlike the process of acquisition, uses faculties of mind outside the lad. 3.图示4.what are points of the consensus of

38、early linguistic study of sla? (1) what is being acquired through a dynamic interlanguage system (2) how sla takes place involves creative mental processes (3) why some learners are more successful than others relates primary to the age. 5.what is the role of grammar according to krashen? the only i

39、nstance in which the teaching of grammar can result in language acquisition (and proficiency) is when the students are interested in the subject and the target language is used as a medium of instruction. 六、universal grammar 1.differences of linguistic competence and performance(见 chapter1 名词解释 ) 2.

40、what is ug? (名词解释 ) 3.ug and l1 acquisition (1) what the child acquire is selecting parametric options. (2) unlike sla, attitudes, motivations and social context play no role. 4.ug and sla, there are three important questions (1) what is the initial state of sal? interference( 看参数相同不相同); no agreemen

41、t on access to ug (2) what is the nature of il and how does it change over time? 定参数的过程language faculty; positive/negative evidence( 起作用 ); constructionism; fossilization (3) what is the final state in sla?(p52 五个达不到的原因) 七、functional approaches (systemic linguistics) 1.what are the four functional a

42、pproaches? they are systemic linguistics; functional typology; function-to-form mapping; information organization. 2.what is systemic linguistics( 系统功能语言学)? developed by hilliday in the late 1950s, it is a model for analyzing language in terms of the interrelated systems of choices that are availabl

43、e for expressing meaning. 儿童的语言体系是一个意义体系，语言是从意义体系逐渐发展而来，经历过有简单到复杂的过程。不同有不同意义，根据需要选择最佳的（红绿灯）。3.what acquire by language learners is meaning potential. there are seven functions of language. (p53) 4.systemic linguists advance four theoretical claims about language: a)that language use is functional; b

44、)that its function is to make meanings; c)that these meanings are influenced by the social and context in which they are exchanged. d)that the process of using language is a semiotic process, a process of making meanings by choosing. 5.all of the functional approaches discussed here basically agree

45、on the following: a)what is being acquired in sla is a system for conveying meaning, b)how language is acquired importantly involves creative learner involvement in communication, and c)understanding of sla processes is impossible if they are isolated from circumstances of use. chapter 4 the psychol

46、ogy of second language acquisition 1.lateralization: different specification of two halves of the brain. for example, the left hemisphere becomes specialized for most language activity, many believe during a critical period for language development.2.critical period hypothesis( 临界期假设 ): the claim th

47、at children have the only a limited number of years during which they can acquire their l1 flawlessly; if they suffer brain damage to the language areas, brain plasticity in childhood would allow other areas of the brain to take over the language functions of the damaged area, but beyond a certain a

48、ge, normal language development would not be possible. this concept is commonly extended to sla as well, in the claim that only children are likely to achieve native or near-native proficiency in l2.3.information processing (ip): a cognitive framework which assumes that sla (like learning of other d

49、omains) proceeds from control to automatic processing and involves progressive reorganization of knowledge.4.controlled processing: r an initial stage of the learning process that demands learners attention.5.automatic processing: after an initial stage of control processing, automatic processing is

50、 a stage in learning that requires less mental “ space” and attention effort on the learners part. 6.reconstructing: the reorganization of knowledge that take place in the central processing stage of information processing. 7.input: whatever sample of l2 leaner expose to.8.output: in sla, the langua

51、ge that learners produce in speech/sign or in writing. 9.u-shaped development: a sequence of acquisition for elements of both l1 and l2 where learner use an initially correct form such as plural feet, then an incorrect foots. finally, learners return to feet when they begin to acquire exceptions to

52、the plural inflection rule.10. connectionism: a cognitive framework for explaining learning processes, beginning in the 1980s and becoming increasingly influential. it assumes that sla results from increasing strength of associations between stimulus and response. 11. aptitude: an individual set of

53、characteristics which correlate with success in language learning.12. motivation: a need and desire to learn. 13. cognitive style: an individual s preferred way of processing: i.e. of perceiving, conceptualizing, organizing and recalling information.14. learning strategies: the behavior and techniqu

54、es that individuals adopt in the efforts to learn l2.1.in psychological respective, what are the three foci? what is stressed in each? first, it focus on language and brain, addressing what is being acquired in a physical sense; second, it focuses on the learning process (ip and connectionism), addr

55、essing how acquisition takes place. finally, it focuses on the differences on learners, addressing the question of why some l2 learners are more successful than others. 2.it appears that l1 and l2 are stored in somewhat different areas of the brain, and the right hemisphere might be more involved in

56、 l2 than l1. age/less plasticity; how independent are the languages of multilingual speakers? (coordinate, compound and subordinate) 3.what are the three stages of ip? what must learners do to make input available for processing? they are input, central processing and output. (central processing is

57、the heart of the model, where learning occurs, from controlled to automatic processing and where reconstructing takes place.)| learners must notice or pay attention to input to make it available for processing; this kind of input is called intake .| swain contends that output is necessary for succes

58、sful l2 learning because it helps develop automaticity through practice and because it helps learners notice in their own knowledge. (区别于 monitor model 中的只要有enough comprehensive input 就可以了 ) 4.what are the theories regarding order of acquisition? they are multidimensional model (p76) and processabil

59、ity theory. 5.what is competition model? it is a functional approach to sla which assumes that all linguistic performance involves “ mapping ” between external form and internal function. (根据语境来选择son 的用词 ) 6.the connectionist approach to learning focuses on the increasing strength of associations be

60、tween stimuli and response, considering learning a change in the strength of these associations. 7.the differences between learners are age (p82), sex, aptitude, motivation, cognitive style, personality, and learning strategies. 8.motivation largely determines the level of effort which learners expend a