Chapter4syntax语言学.

1、Chapter IV. Syntax1 . Traditional approachnumber(singular and plural), gender( masculine, feminine, neuter)and case(in English, 3 cases: nominative/l,he,she, accusative/me, him,her, gen itive/my, his, her)tense and aspecttense is time-related, it relates the time of the acti on, eve nt or stateof af

2、fairs referred to in the sentence to the time of utterance(the time ofutteranee being how”).-past and presentaspecthas to do with whether an acti on was completed or not,whether it happe ned once or freque ntly, whether it occupied a point intime or a stretch of time. En glish has two co-existe nt c

3、hoices of aspect,namely (1).continous denoted by the presenee of-ng, Im writing, andnon-continuous, I write. (2). Perfect denoted by the prese nee of -en. Ihave writte n, and no e-perfect, I write.concord and governmentCon cord: (agreeme nt) or requireme nt that the forms of two ormore words in a sy

4、n tactic relati on ship should agree with each other interms of some categories.This man. These men. He speaks. They speakGover nment: a type of con trol over the form of some words byother words in certain syntactic constructions. She gave him the book.She gave the book tohim.2. the structural appr

5、oach: started by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand deSaussure in the 20thcentury. They regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure (or system), not as isolated bits.syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationssyntagmatic/horizontal, chain relation组合关系：is a relationbetween one item an

6、d others in a sequenee, or between elementswhich are all present. The words in a syntagmatic relation must meetsome syn tactic and sema ntic con diti ons. (see P120)Structure: the sequence which a sign forms with those it is in asyn tagmatic relatio nparadigmatic relation / vertical, choice(聚 合关系/as

7、sociative):is a relation between elements replaceable with each other at aparticular place in a structure, or between one element prese nt and theothers abse nt.system: the class of sig ns which are in a paradigmatic relatio n.the_is smili ngConstraints: noun, animate noun, human, in singular (singu

8、larhuman nouns), such as boy, girl, man, woman, student, whichare in a paradigmatic relati on. They can replace each otherwithout violat ing syn tactic rules.Notes: the con stra ints are only syn tactic, not sema ntic.immediate constituentanalysisthe analysis of a sentence in terms ofits immediate c

9、onstituents -word groups (or phrases), which are in turnan alyzed into the immediate con stitue nts of their own, and theprocess goes on un til the ultimate con stitue nts are reached. (stop atthe level of word).construction/construct: (in gerneral sense), it refers to theoverall process of internal

10、 orga ni zati on of a grammatical unit -how aphrase, a clause or a sentence is constructed out of a set ofmorphemes by following a set of rules. It can further refer to the syntagmatic result of such a process. (a relati on ship betwee nconstituents: endocentric construction & exocentric constru

11、ction)In the analysis of a text, construction refers to a token of aconstructional type. The girl is giggling is recognized as sub. + Pred.Type, which is realized in a string the + girl + is + giggling”.Since constructi on is composed of several parts (si ngle words, groups of words.Etc.), the small

12、 units are know as its immediate constituents. Even thesmall units themselves can be constructuions of specific types. The girl= nominal phrase (the girl is con structi on of nominalphrase), whereas the + girl are its constituent.endocentric and exocentric constructionsA con structi on is a relati o

13、n ship betwee n con stitue nts, whichare divided in to two types: en doce ntric con structi ons and exocentric con structi ons.Endocentric construction (headed constucution)：s one whosedistributi on is fun cti on ally equivale nt, or approach ing equivale nt, tothat of one or more of its constituent

14、s, which serves as the center, orhead of the whole. (If the total construction head + modification ormodification + head has the same distributuonal characteristics as thehead constituent, it is usually called endocentric construction).For example: they left because they were tired. They left = head

15、.Because =modifier.Subord in ate con structi on: those in which there is on ly one head,with the head being dominant and the other con stitue nts depe ndant.e.g. the stude nt at the back.A subord in ati ng con structi on contains a subord in ator, which is aprep. Particle, or a subord in atio n conj

16、 un cti on such as in, over, to,after, because, and a dependent unit.Coordin ate con structi on: there are more tha n one head, whichare of equal syn tactic status, no one is depe ndant on the other: e.g.boys and girls / John sings but Jack dancesA coord in ate con structi on contains a marker or co

17、ord in ator andtwo or more independent units (word, phrases or even wholesenten ces)Exoce ntric con structi on: /3. The gen erative approachIn 1957, the American linguist Chomsky proposed thetransformational-generative grammar(TG), thus providing a model forthe description of human Ianguages. The go

18、al of TG is to find out asystem of rules to account for the linguistic competence of nativespeakers of a Ianguage to form grammatical sentences.It is called TGbecause it it attempts to do two thin gs:to provide the rules that can be used to gen erate grammaticalsenten cesto show how basic senten ces

19、ca n be tran sformed into eithersynonym ous phrases or more complex senten ces4.3.1 deep and surface structuresTG产生的背景：Because of its in siste nce on bi nary divisio ns andfailure to reveal structural ambiguities, certain problems arise inimmediate con stitue nt an alysis. It is in this con text tha

20、t TG comesinto existe nce.TG的 内容：According to TG, human beings possess twogrammars as part of their lin guistic compete nee.A phrase structure grammar which consists of the rules governing idealized sentence formatio nA tran sformati onal grammar, which en ables us tomanipulate(use) sentences to pro

21、duce the full range ofsentence types . TG grammarAs a result , every sentence has a surface structure (post-transformatio nal stage) and deep structure ( a pre-tra nsformatio nalstage).Deep structure:Text book: the abstract represe ntatio n of the syn tactic propertiesof a construction, i.e. the und

22、erlying level of structural relationsbetween its different constituents, such as the relation between theunderlying subject and its verb, or a verb and its object.Tragott(1980:141): deep structure shows the basic form of asentence with all necessary information to derive a well-formed sentence, and

23、to give it a phono logical represe ntati on and a sema nticinterpretation. It reveals the underlying structure of a linguisticutterance and specifies the grammatical relations and functions of thesyntactic elements, as well as the linguistic meaning of the con stituents.Surface structure:Text book:

24、The final stage in the syntactic derivation of a con struction, which closely corresp onds to the structural orga ni zati on of a constructi on people actually produce and receive.Tragott(1980:141): actually produced structure .Bussman (1996:465-466): it is the directly observable actual form ofsent

25、en ces as they are used in com mun icati on, and from theperspective of transformational grammar, surface structure is arelatively abstract sentence structure resulting from the application ofbase rules and tran sformatio nal rules.Relationship between SS and DS: is that of transformation(Wardhaugh,

26、 1997: 118-119) cf: p113-114(杨信彰)432 the standard theory and after(cf. P135)In 1965, Chomsky published his sec ond importa nt book Aspects ofthe Theroy of Syn tax, i n which he in troduced some modificati ons tohis 1stmodel, that is, he added a sema ntic comp onent to it. Now theIanguage is seen as

27、consisting of three major parts: syntax, sema nticsand phono logy.The base comp onentcategories and lexic on-Contains rules with feature specification forthe words to be in serted (cf.P136)Aspects of the Theory of Syntax:more comprehe nsive and maturestcompared with the 1 model, thus is known as the

28、 sta ndard theory.4.3.3 government, binding, et c.In 1979: Lectures on Government and Binding.A grammar is now said to have 2 systems.: a rule system(lexic on,syntax, phonetic form component, logical form component), a principlesystem ( bounding theory, government theory, .6-theory, bi ndingtheory;

29、case theory, con trol theory) (see figure 6, P140)C-command: refers to the relation between an element and another of the same level and un der the same node in a tree diagram, andany others under the latter element as well. (see P142).Condition: An element governs another if the two are under thesa

30、me node directly, and the former is the head of the con structi on.Binding theory: (see P144)4.4 The functional approach1. fun cti onal sentence perspective (FSP)FSP is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis ofuttera nces (or texts) in terms of the in formati on they contain .It

31、 iscreated to describe how information is distributed in sentences, it dealsparticularly with the effect of the distribution of known in formati on andnew in formati on is discourseTheme: that which is known or at least obvious in the givensituation and from which the speaker proceeds.(the point ofdeparture话语的出发点)Rheme: What the speaker states about , or in regard to, the startingpoint of the utterance”the goal of discourse话语的核心).Mathesius thought that it is n atural for the speaker to start from theknown to the unknown, and the theme-rheme order is th