LegalEducation法律教育

1、In 1983, over 125,000 law students were studying in more than 170 ABA accredited law schools including public lawschools supported in part by government funds; private law schools supported by contributions from individuals andfoundation funds; and local or national schools offering full time or par

2、t time legal study programs. As virtually the onlyway to prepare for membership in the legal profession, law schools in the United States fulfill several functionsincluding professional training and socialization of future lawyers and screening and gate-keeping for entrance to theprofession. Since t

3、here is no central institution where all lawyers practice, the only institutional experience whichlawyers have in common is law school.在1983年，有125,000多名法律学生就读于美国律师协会认可的170多家法学院，这些 法学院包括由部分政府资金赞助的公立法学院， 由个人和基金会的募捐所赞助的私立法学院， 和一些当地或全国的法学院， 这些法学院均提供全职或兼职的法律学习计划。 作为通向法律 职业实质上唯一的一条路径， 美国的法学履行的一些职能包括职业培训和培

4、育未来的律师的 社交活动能力以及对准备进入法律职业的人筛选和把关。 因为美国没有一个可供所有律师实 习的集中机构，所以律师所唯一共同的机构经历就是法学院。The criticism which range from“mild to caustic”of the way in which law schools have carriedout these functions and of the functions themselves have been persistent, diverse and rooted in the historical andpolitical developm

5、ent of the profession. These criticisms have focused on the curriculum and the dominance of thecase method; the distribution of power and prestige reflected in the hierarchy within and among the law schools; andthe imbalance in term of women and minorities in the student body and faculty in the law

6、schools.对于法学院履行这些职能时所采用的 “从温和到苛刻 ”的方式以及对这些职能本身的批判 一直就持续不断、 多种多样而且这种批判根源于法律职业的历史的和政治的发展过程。 这些 批判集中在其课程设置和占主导地位的案例教学法； 法学院内、 外所存在的权力和地位分配 的等级制度；以及法学院的学生机构和老师在女性和少数民族方面的比例不平衡。Part One: Curriculum and the Case Method第一部分：课程和案例教学法The traditional first-year program offered in virtually all American law sc

7、hools includes: contracts, torts, property,criminal law and civil procedure. Duncan Kennedy has described the traditional first-year curriculum as basicallyteaching the ground rules for late 19thcentury laissez-faire capitalism. The second year and third year course expoundthe moderate reformist New

8、 Deal Program and the administrative structure of the modern regulatory state. Theperipheral subjects, if they are offered, include legal philosophy, legal history, legal process, and clinical education, a“kindof playground or finishing school for learning the social art of self presentation as a la

9、wyer”.美国几乎所有的法学院传统的第一年课程计划都包括：合同法、侵权法、财产法、刑法和 民事诉讼法。邓肯 肯尼迪曾把法学院传统的第一年的课程形象描述为基本上是教19世纪后期自由资本主义的一些基本原则。 而第二年和第三年的课程则阐释了现代改革派的新政政策 和现代法治国家的行政构架。那些不太重要的课程，如果大学开设的话，则包括法哲学、法 制史、和法律流程和诊所式教育， 一种学习作为律师所应具备的自我表现社会艺术的操练场 或精修学校。 ”However, as new areas of the law continue to develop in response to contemporary

10、 issues and problems, some lawschools have expanded curricula to include courses and clinical programs in environmental law, housing and urbandevelopment, womensrights, health in the workplace, welfare rights and consumer protection. There are alsoincreasing efforts to teach law in interdisciplinary

11、 contexts, drawing on other disciplines such as history, psychology,sociology, medicine, and economics.然而，为应对现在的一些难题和问题，法律的新领域也不断扩大， 因此一些法学院也在教 授的科目和诊所教育中都新增了一些课程包括环境法、 住房和城市发展、 妇女权益、 工作场 所的健康问题、福利权和消费者保护方面。并且还越来越多的在跨学科背景下来教授法律， 使法律与诸如历史、心理学、社会学、医学和经济学这些学科靠近。In teaching the traditional curriculum, l

12、aw teachers in almost all the law schools use to some extent the case methodor the Socratic Method. Developed in the 1870bsy Christopher Columbus Langdell at the Harvard Law School, thecase method looked to the common law as the source of legal principles and focused on the teaching of an abstractco

13、nception of the law as a science. The legal principles elicited were to be taught divorced from the grubby world ofpractice-and also from politics, history, economics, and social contexts. This narrow formalistic approach wasjustified on the ground that it taught students how to state, analyze, eval

14、uate and compare concrete fact situationsthus developing their powers and skills of analysis, reasoning, and expression.在教这些传统的课程时， 几乎所有法学院的老师们都会一定程度的用到案例教学法或苏格 拉底教学法。这种教学法是由哈佛大学法学院的克里斯托弗哥伦布 兰德尔教授自1870年开始推广发展的， 案例教学法认为普通法是一系列法律原则的渊源并且注重把抽象的法律概念 作为一种科学来讲授。在教所引述的法律原则时脱离了 “实践中的纷乱世界 也即脱离了政 治、历史、经济和社会背景。

15、 ”这种狭隘的程式化教学法的合理之处在于它能教会学生怎样 去陈述、 分析、权衡和比较具体的事实情况因此可以培养了他们分析、 推理和表达的能力和 技巧。However, this process of learning how to think like a lawyer has been criticized as having an adverse impact bothon the students and the quality of future lawyering. Students, law teachers, and others have pointed to the alie

16、nation,anxiety, hostility and aggression caused by use of the case method or Socratic Method. The narrow and destructiveinteraction of this dialogue, or often nondialogue, contributes to the impairment of the ability to care about otherpeople, a professional unemotionalism and cynicism on the part o

17、f law students. And it is not only the law studentswho suffer from this narrowing of their professional selves. The work of a lawyer involves continuous contacts withclients, associates, other lawyers, judges, witnesses, others affected by the law, and involves the lawyers owngoals, attitudes, perfo

18、rmance, and sense ofsatisfaction.但是，这种学习 “如何像律师一样思考 ”的过程备受批评之处在于它对学生本身以及他们将 来执业的水平都产生了非常不好的影响。 学生们、法学老师们和其他人都曾指出了采用这种 案例教学法或苏格拉底教学法所造成的异化、 不安、敌意和好斗的结果。 这种师生对话式的 教学或大多数情况下 “非对话 ”式的教学的狭隘和破坏性的互相作用造成了法学院学生对别 人的冷漠无情， 一种职业上的无感情主义和愤世嫉俗。 而且不只是法学院的学生们饱受他们 职业自身的狭隘性之苦。律师还要经常和客户、检察官、其他律师、法官、证人以及其他与法律有关的人打交道，而且这

19、也关系到律师自身的目标、态度、行为表现以及满足感。Part Two：Law School Hierarchy第二部分：法学院的等级制度Duncan Kennedy has described the law schools as intensely political places, characterized by a trade schoolmentality, the endless attention to trees at the expense of forests.”lTahwe schools function as the institution forideological

20、 training for willing service in the hierarchies of the corporate welfare state. In the ranking and evaluationof students, students learn to accept their place in a hierarchy which is presented as just and inevitable and soprepare themselves for all the hierarchies to follow. In the law teachers mod

21、eling of hierarchical relationships withstudents, colleagues, secretaries and support staff, students learn a particular style of condescension towardsperceived inferiors and deference towards perceived superiors. And under the subtle but intense pressure to conformto the white, male, middle class t

22、one set by law faculties which are overwhelmingly white, male, and middle class,law students adapt, partly out of fear, partly out of hope of gain, partly out of genuine admiration for their role models.In these ways, legal education is one of the causes of legal hierarchy. Legal education supports

23、it by analogy,provides it a general legitimating ideology by justifying the rules that underlie it, and provides it a particular ideology bymystifying legal reasoning. Legal education structures the pool of prospective lawyers so that their hierarchicalorganization seems inevitable, and trains them

24、to look and think and act just like all the other lawyers in the system”.邓肯 肯尼迪曾把法学院描述为政治气氛浓厚之地”，具有 中等职业学校的思想水平，且只见树木， 不见森林 ”的特征。 法学院作为 “在思想意识上培训学生自愿服务这共同福利国家 的等级制度之中 ”的机构而发挥作用。在学生排名和评估之中，学生们学会接受他们在这个 等级之中的位置， 这被认为是公正且不可避免的以便 “为他们遵照所有的等级做好准备 ”。在 法学院老师们与学生、 同事、秘书和助理之间所建立的等级关系中， 学生学会了俯就被认为 地位低的人而尊从被认为

25、地位高的人的特有方式。 在尊从由一帮绝大多数是白人男性的中产 阶级的法学院教师所定的“白人男性中产阶级的基调 ”的微妙却巨大的压力之下，法学院学生的适应 “部分原因是出于敬畏，部分是希望有所得，部分是真正的崇敬他们的形象”。正是基于此， “法学教育成为了导致法律等级的原因之一。法学教育通过类推支撑着这种等级，通 过使其中的规则合法化的方式来为其提供一个普遍的合情合理的意识观念，通过神秘化的法律推论来为其提供一种特定的意识观念。 法学教育培养了一批备用的潜在律师，以使这个等级体系看起来不可避免，并且训练他们和这个体系内的其他律师一样来思考和行事”。In addition to the hiera

26、rchy within the law schools suggested by Kennedy, other analyses of the law schoolsfunctions and relationship to the profession suggest the existence of a hierarchy among the law schools. The topdozen or so elite law schools occupy a position of power and prestige which is partially reflected in the

27、 professionalcareer paths of their graduates and in the old boy networks connecting the law schools and the rest of the legalprofession. The models of the law school as the gateway to the American power elite became possible with the NewDeal. Felix Frankfurter placsement network for the best and the

28、 brightest into influential public policy positionsduring the New Deal in the 1930s was an early example of this kind of network.During his tenure at Harvard and later while on the Supreme Court, Frankfurter developed an old boy network whichwas intimately involved with the placement of many of the

29、elite lawyers, all of whom were white and male, into publicservice. The typical Frankfurter recruit was a graduate of Harvard Law School, politically liberal, usually ranked highin his class, and either an obvious product of upper class gentile culture or an obvious product of a radically differentc

30、ulture who was comfortable in the upper class gentile world.除了肯尼迪所提到的法学院内部的等级制度之外， 其他有关法学院的职能以及与法律职业 间的关系的分析表明法学院之间也同样存在着等级之分。 那些顶级的或所谓的精英法学院享 有较高的权力和地位， 这其中部分可反映在这些学校的毕业生的职业生涯之路上和与法学院 相连的 “老同学关系网 ”上以及法律职业的其他方面。“随着新政实行法学院作为通向美国权 力精英之路的可能性”成为一种典范。在1930年新政”时期费利克斯弗兰克福特让最优秀 和聪明 ”的律师参与具有影响力的公众政策制定的所建立的关系

31、网就是早期的这种关系网的 一个例证。 当他在哈佛大学当终身教授时以及后来在最高法院任职期间， 弗兰克福特建立了 一个的 “老同学关系网 ”参与公众服务，很多 “精英”律师紧密参与其中，他们中的所有人几乎都是白人男性。弗兰克福特所招募的典型对象是 “哈佛大学法学院的毕业生、政治自由、通 常在班级里名列前茅， 要么明显是非犹太文化中上流社会的人， 要么明显是一个来自非常不 同文化的且很适应非犹太的上流社会的人 ”。In the current hiring practices of the major law firms and in the competition for judicial cl

32、erkships, and in theappointments to law faculties, the graduates of the elite schools continue to have an advantage over graduates ofother schools. In a recent study of Chicago lawyers, Zemans and Rosenblum found that lawyers who attended highprestige law schools and graduated in the top 20 percent of their classes were much more likely to practice in largefirms and specialize in high-prestige fields of law. In terms of appointments to law faculties, 60% of the legalprofession teasching specialists are produced by fewer than 15% of t