学习工具4孤阅认知偏误表

1、TOO MUCH INFORMATIONWe notice things already primed in memory or repeated often.Availability heuristicThe tendency to overestimate the likelihood of events with greater "availability" in memory, which can be influenced by how recent the memories are or how unusual or emotionally charged th

2、ey may be.可得性 法容易想到的事，其发生概率会受高估，然而一件事是否容易想到还受发生多久、激起情绪的程度等因素影响，无法反映实际的发生概率。Attentional biasThe tendency of our perception to be affected by our recurring thoughts.注意力偏误的事，会影响我们的感知。Illusory truth effectA tendency to believe that a statement is true if it is easier to process, or if it has been stated

3、 multiple times, regardless of its actual veracity. These are specific cases of truthiness.幻觉真实效应当一个人 知许多次某个信息是正确可靠的时候，那么无论这个信息是否真的可靠，那个人都会觉得这个信息是正确可靠的。（例子：三人成虎）从众产生：大家都这么想，一定是对的。Mere exposure effectThe tendency to express undue liking for thinerely because of familiarity with them.多看效应或单纯接触效应对熟悉的人与

4、事产生过多的好感。明星发自拍“刷脸”聚粉Context effectThat cognition and memory are dependent on context, such that out-of-context memories are more difficult to retrieve than in-context memories (e.g., recall time and accuracy for a work-related memory will be lower at home, and vice versa)情境效应某情境中的记忆在其他情境下较不易回想。Cue-d

5、ependent forgetting線賴性遺忘工作中减少任务切换成本的方式：Cue-dependent forgetting, or retrieval failure, is the failure to recall information without memory cues. The term either pertains to semantic cues, state-dependent cues or context-dependent cues.任务进行节点便于及时返回，继续进行Mood-congruent memory biasThe improved recall of

6、 information congruent with one's current mood.心境相合性记忆偏误与当下心境相合的资讯会比较容易回想。Frequency illusionThe illusion in which a word, a name, or other thing that has recently cone's attention suddenly seems to appear with improbable frequency shortly afterwards (not to be confused with the recency illus

7、ion or selection bias). This illusion may explain some examples of the Baader-Meinhof Phenomenon, whereby someone hears a new word or phrase repeatedly in a short span of time.频率错觉因最近注意到一件原先没注意到的事，就觉得这件事到处都在发生。（参见近因错觉及选择偏误）Baader-Meinhof PhenomenonThis phenomenon occurs when the thing you've jus

8、t noticed, experienced or been told about suddenly crops up constantly. It gives you the feeling that out of nowhere, pretty much everyone and their cousin arking about the subject - or that it is swiftly surrounding you. And you're not crazy; you are-迈因 现象当你了解到一个新知识，比如新 、新概念等， 之后你就会有机会再一次遇到它。这就

9、是 -迈因 现象。totally seeing it more. But the thing is, of course, that's because you're noticing it moreEmpathy gapThe tendency to underestimate the influence or strength of feelings, in either oneself or others.移情隔阂也称移情差异、移情隔阂，人们低估情感的影响或者 的倾向。Omission biasThe tendency to judge harmful actions a

10、s worse, or less moral, than equally harmful omissions (inactions).偏误认为主动作为导致比导致 更糟糕、更不道德，即使后者 与前者相当或比后者 。电车难题“”也是一种选择Base rate fallacyThe tendency to ignore base rate information (generic, general information) and focus on specific information (information only pertaining to a certain case).基本比率谬误只

11、关注 性的资讯，忽略一般性的资讯（基本比率），导致不恰当的认知。例如因为酒驾较容易肇事，就认为肇事者多半是酒驾，然而由于酒驾者占所有驾驶者的比率甚小，肇事者之中酒驾者的比例 那。Bizarre, funny, visually-striking, or anthropomorphic things stick out more than non- bizarre/ unfunny things.Bizarreness effectBizarre material is better remembered than common material.怪异效应怪异的事比寻常的事更容易记住。Humor

12、 effectThat humorous items are more easily remembered than non-humorous ones, which might be explained by the distinctiveness of humor, the increased cognitive processing time to understand the幽默效应幽默的事比不幽默的事更容易记住，可能的解释是幽默的事有较长的认知处理时间，或造成较多的情绪激发。humor, or the emotional arousal caused by the humor.Von

13、 Restorff effectThat an item that sticks out is more likely to be remembered than other items.效应醒目的事或特别强调的事比其他的事更容易记住。要想成为畅销书，首先要成为。Picture superiority effect The picture superiority effect, or pictorial superiority effect is the term that resulted from experiments that have shown that in human memo

14、ry recall, pictures outperform text dramatically. When information is presented orally, after 3 days, people will only remember 10% of it.图画优异性效应也称图优效应，通过图片来传达的信息记忆效果要比通过文字传达的更好。Self-relevance effectThat memories relating to the self are better recalled than similar information relating to others.自身

15、相关效应与自身相关的讯息较易回想， 与他人相关的较不易。Negativity biasPsychological phenomenon by which humans have a greater recall of unpleasant memories compared with positive memories.偏误容易回想消极的回忆而不易回想积极的。i/Rumination (psychology)反刍思维（Rumination）We notice when something has changed.AnchoringThe tendency to rely too heavily

16、, or "anchor", on one trait or piece of information when making decisions (usually the first piece of information acquired on that subject)锚定效应为不熟悉事物估值时，会把熟悉的类似事物或 前接触到的无关数值当做“锚”，估出来的数值会大大倾向“锚”。Anchoring定价，谈判，舒适区Law of the instrumentConservatism保守倾向 ()Conservatism (belief revision)The tend

17、ency to revise one's belief insufficiently when presented with new evidence.新证据出现时，对既有信念的幅度不足。BayesContrast effectThe enhancement or reduction of a certain perception's stimuli when compared with a recently observed, contrasting object.对比效应感受特质的程度主要是受与其他相关事物的对比程度影响， 而非受其实际程度影响。如何增加一件商品的销售量？（

18、在它旁边放一个明显次于它的商品Distinction biasThe tendency to view two options as more dissimilar when evaluating them simultaneously than when evaluating them separately.差异偏差相较于比较，两件事物放在一起比较，差异会显得更 大。Focusing effectThe tendency to place too much importance on one aspect of an event.聚焦效应过分关注事情的某些明显面 向、忽略不明显面向，导致不恰

19、当的预期。Framing effectDrawing differents from the same information, depending on how that information is presented框架效应同一资讯以不同方式呈现方式会带来不同想法，例 十分之九的存活率”和“有十分之一的 率”。Money illusionThe tendency to concentrate on the nominal value (face value) of money rather than its value in terms of purchasing power.货币错觉专

20、注于货币名目上（表面上） 的价值，而非其实质力。Weber-Fechner law Difficulty in comparinall differences in large quantities.定理（Weber-Fechner law）分为及费两种定理，定理又称“感觉阈限定律”（absolute threshold），用于差异阈限定义。定律：在同类刺激之下， 其差异阈限的大小是随着标准刺激强弱而成一定比例关系 的，K=I/I K 为常数。定律：在绝对阈限之 上，的感觉强度与刺激强度的改变，两者间呈对数的关系，亦即，刺激强度如果按几何级数增加，而引起的感觉强度却只按算术级数增加。We ar

21、e drawn to details that confirm our own existing beliefs.Confirmation biasThe tendency to search for, interpret, focus on and remember information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions.确认偏误关注、寻找、诠释、记忆资讯的方向多半是能确认 成见的方向。i/Cognitive dissonance Cognitive dissonance 认知失调Awho experiences inconsi

22、stency tends to become psychologically uncomfortable, and so is motivated to try to reduce the cognitive dissonance occurring, and actively avoids situations and information likely to increase the psychological discomfort.Congruence biasThe tendency to test hypotheses exclusively through direct test

23、ing, instead相合性偏误直接检验假设，却没想到要检验其他可能的假设。of testing possible alternative hypotheses.Post-purchase rationalization The tendency to persuade oneself through rational argument that a purchase was good value.购后合理化后把之前的 决定合理化，即使买下的 太过昂贵或发现瑕疵。Choice-supportive biasIn a self-justifying manner retroactively a

24、scribing one's choices to be more informed than they were when they were made.支持选择偏误回顾 做过的选择时，倾向认为是明智的（参见支持选择偏误）。Selective perceptionThe tendency for expectations to affect perception.选择性知觉由于对人或事有特定期待，因而倾向于注意符合期待的事 件，忽略或忘却不符合期待的。我们在用特定的方式世界，世界是客观的，我们 世界的方式是的。生病时没人问候：怕打扰到自己？还是根本不关心？Observer-expec

25、tancy effect When a researcher expects a given result and therefore unconsciously manipulates an experiment or misinterprets data in order to find it (see also subject-expectancy effect).观察者期望效应由于研究者期待某种结果，因而下意识中不适当地操作实验或诠释资料（参见受试者期望效应）。Experimenter's biasThe tendency for experimenters to believ

26、e, certify, and publish data that agree with their expectations for the outcome of an experiment, and to disbelieve, discard, or downgrade the corresponding weightings for data that appear towith those expectations.实验者偏误实验者倾向相信、认可、发布符合他们期望的结果，而不 信、贬低、弃置不符合的。Observer effect (Actor- observer bias)观察者偏

27、误我：交通堵塞。The actor-observer bias is a term in social psychology that refers to a tendency to attribute one's own actions to external causes, while attributing other people's behaviors to internal causes.也称行为者-观察者偏误，解释其他的行为时过分强调内在个性的影响，而轻视当时的外在情况（参见基本归因错误Fundamental attribution error），而在解释行为时则

28、与此相反。别人：你就是一个不守时的人。Expectation biasThe tendency for experimenters to believe, certify, and publish data that agree with their expectations for the outcome of an experiment, and to disbelieve, discard, or downgrade the corresponding weightings for data that appear towith those expectations.期望偏误实验者倾向相

29、信、认可、发布符合他们期望的结果，而不 信、贬低、弃置不符合的。Ostrich effect Ignoring an obvious (negative) situation.鸵鸟效应忽视明显的（）情况。Subjective validation Perception that something is true if a subject's belief demands it to be true. Also assigns perceived connections between coincidences.验证或 确认相信某事是对的，就感觉它是对的。也会把巧合的事当做有关联。“强

30、加因果” 弱相关性Continued influence effect The tendency to believe previously learned misinformation even after it has been corrected.Misinformation can still influence inferences one generates after a correction has occurred.持续影响效应即使先前已知的错误信息被纠正了，人们仍然有相信它的倾向。First impressions matterSemmelweis reflex塞反射The

31、 tendency to reject new evidence that contradicts a paradigm.条件反射般地 、拒绝新证据或新知识，因其抵触现有的常规、信仰或价值观。We notice flaws in others more easily than we notice flaws in ourselves.Bias blind spotThe tendency to see oneself as less biased than other people, or to be able to identify more cognitive biases in othe

32、rs than in oneself.偏见盲点认为比其他人更能辨识认知偏误，也较不易受影响。Naïve cynicismExpecting more egocentric bias in others than in oneself.素朴犬儒认为别人的自我中心偏误或者利己行为比。“利他”行为的人，早已被淘汰了。Naïve realismThe belief that we see reality as it really is objectively and without bias; that the facts are plain for all to see; tha

33、t rational people will agree with us; and that those who don't are either uninformed, lazy, irrational, or biased.素朴实在论相信 所见所闻即是 、是客观且不带偏见的，认为这是显而易见的事实，理性人一定会同意 ，不同意的人一定是资讯不足、懒惰、不理性或有偏见。我都不知道的事情，能是真的么？NOT ENOUGH MEANINGWe tend to find stories and patterns even when looking at sparse data.Confabu

34、lationA form of misattribution where imagination is mistaken for a memory.虚谈产生虚构的事填补记忆空白， 即使没有意图。例如的幼年 给他看，他往往能说出以前做那些事的过程与回忆，但实际上他根本没做过。常见于记忆 的患者。Clustering illusionThe tendency to overestimate the importance of small runs, streaks, or clusters in large samples of random data (that is, seeing phant

35、om patterns).集群错觉过度期待从小样本或小型测试中发现的规律，然而这些小样本或小型测试是从大样本随机抽取，大样本往往并无这种规律。Insensitivity to sample size The tendency to under-expect variation in small samples.对样本数不敏锐评估统计数据时，未考虑小样本比大样本更容易观察到结果。Neglect of probabilityThe tendency to completely disregard probability when making a decision under uncertaint

36、y.忽略可能性对于不确定的事，无法准确评估其发生概率，不是完全无 视，便是过分高估。Anecdotal fallacyYou used aal experience or an isolated example instead of a sound argument or compelling evidence.轶事谬误指根据轶事证据做出一般化的推论。由于传闻通常不具好的代表性，据此做出的一般化推论通常是不可靠的。Illusion of validityBelief that furtherly acquired information generates additional relevan

37、t data for效度的错觉高估面谈或直接观察的效度且能用于提供 ，即使证据指出它们影响甚微。predictions, even when it evidently does not.Masked man fallacyIn philosophical logic, the masked-man fallacy (also known as the intensional fallacy and the epistemic fallacy) is committed when one makes an illicit use of Leibniz's law in an argume

38、nt. Leibniz's law states that, if one object has a certain property, while another object does not have the same property, the two objects cannot be identical.蒙面人谬误一种形式谬误，是因不当代换指涉对象造成的错误推论。Recency illusionThe illusion that a word or language usage is a recent innovation when it is in fact long-e

39、stablished (see also frequency illusion).新词错觉感觉某些字词或语句是新发明的，然而它实际上历史悠久。例如英语用“they”表达单数不确定 对象、“you and I”（而非 you and me）。Gambler's fallacyThe tendency to think that future probabilities are altered by past events, when in reality they are unchanged. The fallacy arises from an erroneous conceptual

40、ization of the law of large numbers.For example, "I've flipped heads with this coin five times consecutively, so the chance of tails coming out on the sixth flip is much greater than heads."赌徒谬误认为某事多次发生则未来发生的概率会较小，或多次未发生则未来发生的概率会较大。掷，掷硬币。Illusory correlation Inaccurately perceiving a r

41、elationship between two unrelated events.错觉相关若认为两件事相关，回忆会觉得两者同时发生的频率较高。PareidoliaA vague and random stimulus (often an image or sound) is perceived as significant, e.g., seeing images of animals or faces in clouds, the man in the moon, and hearing non- existent hidden messages on records played in r

42、everse.空想性错视从模糊、随机的影像中看出有意义的东西，例如从云朵中看出脸孔。有时也延伸指听觉， 如 带倒播时听出特别的讯息。AnthropomorphismThe tendency to characterize animals, objects, and abstract concepts as possessing human-like traits, emotions, and intentions.拟人论是一种拟人法（ification、prosopopoeia）（或称“智慧体化”）的使用，将人类（或称“智慧体”）的形态、外观、特征、情感、性格特质套用到 类的生物、物品、自然或

43、超自然现象（或称“非智慧体”）。We fill in characteristics from stereotypes, generalities, and prior histories.Group attribution error The biased belief that the characteristics of anindividual group member are reflective of the group as a whole or the tendency to assume that group decision outcomes reflect the pre

44、ferences of group members, even when information is available that clearly suggests otherwise.群体归因错误把 的特质当作其所属群体的特质，或把 的行为当做其所属群体的偏好。Ultimate attribution error终极归因错误Similar to the fundamental attribution error, in this error ais likely to make an internal attribution to an entire group instead of th

45、e individuals within the group.把问题归因于整个群体，而非群体中的。StereotypingExpecting a member of a group to have certain characteristics without having actual information about that individual.刻板印象根据事物的所属类别或群体判断其特质，而忽略其独特性。归类，让我们理解世界更加容易。（节省认知）EssentialismEssentialism is the view that for any specific entity ther

46、e is a set of attributes which are necessary to its identity and function. In Western thought the concept is found in the work of Plato and Aristotle.本质一种认为任何的实体（如一只动物，一群人，一个物理对 象，一个观念）都有一些必须具备的本质的观点。Functional fixedness Limits ato using an object only in the way it is traditionally used.功能固着受物品的一般用

47、途局限，无法想到用特别的用物品。Moral credential effectThe tendency of a track record of non-prejudice to increase subsequent prejudice.道德认证效应由于得到了某些高道德的评价或认证，而认为做得够 好，反而在其他面向做了相反的事。例如投身环保活动并受到表扬的人，往往忽略了许多的不环保行为。Just-world hypothesisThe tendency for people to want to believe that the world is fundamentally just, ca

48、using them to rationalize an otherwise inexplicable injustice as deserved by the victim(s).公正世界理论相信世界是公平的，发生在身上的都是应得的，把难以解释的归责于受害者的报 应。Argument from fallacy Argument from fallacy is the formal fallacy of analyzing an argument and inferring that, since it contains a fallacy, itsmust be false. It is a

49、lso called argument to logic (argumentum ad logicam), fallacy fallacy, fallacist's fallacy, and bad reasons fallacy.谬误谬误基于某论证无效推得其结论为假。Authority biasThe tendency to attribute greater accuracy to the opinion of an authority figure (unrelated to its content) and be more influenced by that opinion.

50、權威偏見看重某位權威的意見，特別是在我們所知無幾的議題 上。Automation biasThe tendency to depend excessively on automated systems which can lead to erroneous automated information overriding correct decisions.自动化偏误过度依赖于自动化的系统，这可能导致错误的自动化信息取代正确的决定。Bandwagon effectThe tendency to do (or believe) things because many other people d

51、o (or believe) the same. Related to groupthink and herd behavior.从众效应倾向做很多人做的事或相信很多人相信的事。“法不责众”，所有人承担责任往往意味着没有人承担责 任。Placebo effecta beneficial effect, produced by a placebo drug or treatment, that cannot be attributed to the properties of the placebo itself, and must therefore be due to the patient

52、's belief in that treatment.安慰剂效应或伪药效应 给予无效的或治疗， 却相信或觉得情况。先通过“双盲测试”（Double-blind trials）在测试中经常使盲测试。被随机编入对照组及实验组。对照组被给予安慰 剂，而实验组给予真正。无论是或观察的实验都不知道谁得到真正的药物，直至研究结束为止。We imagine things and people we're familiar with or fond of as better.Out-group homogeneity bias The out-group homogeneity effect

53、 is one's perception of out-group members as more similar to one another than are in-group members, e.g. "they are alike; we are diverse".外团体同质性偏差人们常常因为外团体对 较不具价值、接触不多，而认为内团体成员较多元化，而视外人都具有相同性质；这现象叫做外团体同质性偏差。Cross-race effectThe tendency for people of one race to have difficulty identif

54、ying members of a race other than their own.跨种族效应难以分辨其他种族的人。In-group biasThe tendency for people to give preferential treatment to others they perceive to be members of their own groups.群内偏误或称 偏误，人们对认为是属于 这一方的成员有优先或者较好待遇的倾向，即偏向某个人 的群体。“非我族类，其心必异。”Halo effectThe tendency for a's positive or negat

55、ive traits to "spill over" from oneality area to another in others' perceptions of them (see also physical attractiveness stereotype).月晕效应或晕轮效应人會將對一個人事物的單一特性的感覺轉嫁到其他沒有相關的屬性上，然後做出偏頗的判斷(偏見)。“你长得好看，说什么都对。”Cheerleader effectThe tendency for people to appear more attractive in a group than

56、in isolation.啦啦队效应一群長得很好看的人，分開來看都沒這麼好看。集体照中的个人比个人照好看。Positivity effectWhen considering people we like (including ourselves), we tend to make situational attributions about their negative behaviors and正面效应评价喜欢的人的行为时，把他们做好事归因于内在本质，而把他们做坏事归因于环境因dispositional attributions about their positive behaviors. The reverse may be true for people we do not like.素。评价不喜欢的人的行为 时，把他们做好事归因于环境因素，而把他们做坏事归因于内在本质。Not invented here Aversio