冷链物流外文文献

1、附录人TheColdChainanditsLogisticsAuthors:Dr.Jean-PaulRodriguezandDr.TheoNotteboomOverviewWhileGlobalizationhasmadetherelativedistancebetweenregionsoftheworldmuchsmaller,thephysicalseparationofthesesameregionsisstillaveryimportantreality.Thegreaterthephysicalseparation,themorelikelyfreightcanbedamagedin

2、oneofthecomplextransportoperationsinvolved.Somegoodscanbedamagedbyshockswhileotherscanbedamagedbyunduetemperaturevariations.Forarangeofgoodslabeledasperishables,particularlyfood,theirqualitydegradeswithtimesincetheymaintainchemicalreactionswhichratecanbemostlymitigatedwithlowertemperatures.Ittakesti

3、meandcoordinationtoefficientlymoveashipmentandeverydelaycanhavenegativeconsequences,notablyifthiscargoisperishable.Toensurethatcargodoesnotbecomedamagedorcompromisedthroughoutthisprocess,businessesinthepharmaceutical,medicalandfoodindustriesareincreasinglyrelyingonthecoldchaintechnology.Thecoldchain

4、referstothetransportationoftemperaturesensitiveproductsalongasupplychainthroughthermalandrefrigeratedpackagingmethodsandthelogisticalplanningtoprotecttheintegrityoftheseshipments.SpecializationhasledmanycompaniestonotonlyrelyonmajorshippingserviceproviderssuchastheUnitedParcelService(UPS)andFEDEX,bu

5、talsomorefocusedindustryspecialiststhathavedevelopedanichelogisticalexpertisearoundtheshippingoftemperaturesensitiveproducts.Thepotentialtounderstandlocalrules,customsandenvironmentalconditionsaswellasanestimationofthelengthandtimeofadistributionroutemakethemanimportantfactoringlobaltrade.Asaresult,

6、thelogisticsindustryisexperiencingagrowinglevelofspecializationandsegmentationofcoldchainshippinginseveralpotentialnichemarketswithinglobalcommoditychains.Wholenewsegmentsofthedistributionindustryhavebeenveryactiveintakingadvantageofthedualdevelopmentofthespatialextensionofsupplychainssupportedbyglo

7、balizationandthesignificantvarietyofgoodsincirculation.Fromaneconomicdevelopmentperspective,thecoldchainenablesmanydevelopingcountriestotakepartintheglobalperishableproductsmarket.Fromageographicalperspective,thecoldchainhasthefollowingimpacts:Global.Specializationofagriculturalfunctionspermittingth

8、etransportoftemperaturesensitivefoodproductstodistantmarkets.Enablesthedistributionofvaccinesandotherpharmaceuticalorbiologicalproducts.Regional.Cansupportthespecializationoffunctionsandeconomiesofscale,suchasspecializedlaboratories.Local.Timelydistributiontothefinalconsumer,namelygrocerystoresandre

9、staurants.EmergenceofColdChainLogisticsWhileglobalcommoditychainsarefairlymodernexpansionsinthetransportationindustry,therefrigeratedmovementoftemperaturesensitivegoodsisapracticethatdatesbackto1797whenBritishfishermenusednaturalicetopreservetheirfishstockpiles.Thisprocesswasalsoseeninthelate1800sfo

10、rthemovementoffoodfromruralareastourbanconsumptionmarkets,namelydairyproducts.Coldstoragewasalsoakeycomponentoffoodtradebetweencolonialpowersandtheircolonies.Forexample,inthelate1870sandearly1880s,FrancewasstartingtoreceivelargeshipmentsoffrozenmeatandmuttoncarcassesfromSouthAmerica,whileGreatBritai

11、nimportedfrozenbeeffromAustraliaandporkandothermeatfromNewZealand.By1910,600,000tonsoffrozenmeatwasbeingbroughtintoGreatBritainalone.Thefirstreefershipforthebananatradewasintroducedin1903bytheUnitedFoodCompany.Thisenabledthebananatomovefromanexoticfruitthathadasmallmarketbecauseitarrivedinmarketstoo

12、ripe,tooneoftheworldsmostconsumedfruit.Thetemperaturecontrolledmovementofpharmaceuticalsandmedicalsuppliesisamuchmoremoderntransitoptionthantheshippingofrefrigeratedorfrozenfood.Sincethe1950s,logisticalthirdpartycompaniesbegantoemergeandinstitutenewmethodsforsuccessfullytransportingtheseglobalcommod

13、ities.Beforetheiremergence,coldchainprocessesweremostlymanagedinhousebythemanufacturer.IntheUnitedStates,FoodandDrugAdministrationrestrictionsandaccountabilitymeasuresoverthestabilityofthecoldchainincitedmanyofthesecompaniestorelyonspecialtycouriersratherthancompletelyoverhaulingtheirsupplychainfaci

14、lities.Aspecializedindustrywasthusborn.Thevalueofthecoldchaininthepreservationofexpensivevaccinesandmedicalsupplieswasonlybeginningtoberecognizedwhentheselogisticalprovidersstartedtoappear.Asawarenessbegantogrow,sodidtheneedforefficientmanagementofthecoldchain.Therelianceonthecoldchaincontinuestogai

15、nimportance.Withinthepharmaceuticalindustryforinstance,thetesting,productionandmovementofdrugsreliesheavilyoncontrolledanduncompromisedtransferofshipments.Alargeportionofthepharmaceuticalproductsthatmovealongthecoldchainareintheexperimentordevelopmentalphase.Clinicalresearchandtrialsisamajorpartofth

16、eindustrythatcostsmillionsofdollars,butonethatalsoexperiencesafailurerateofaround80%.AccordingtotheHealthcareDistributionManagementAssociation,ofthecloseto200billiondollarsinpharmaceuticaldistribution,about10%aredrugsthataretemperaturesensitive.Thismakesthecoldchainresponsiblefortransportinganear20b

17、illiondollarinvestment.Iftheseshipmentsshouldexperienceanyunanticipatedexposuretovarianttemperaturelevels,theyruntheriskofbecomingineffectiveorevenharmfultopatients.Temperaturecontrolintheshipmentoffoodstuffsisacomponentoftheindustrythathascontinuedtoriseinnecessitywithinternationaltrade.Asagrowingn

18、umberofcountriesfocustheirexporteconomyaroundfoodandproduceproduction,theneedtokeeptheseproductsfreshforextendedperiodsoftimehasgainedinimportance.Increasingincomelevelscreateachangeindietwithamongstothersagrowingappetiteforfreshfruitandhighervaluefoodstuffssuchasmeatandfish.Personswithhighersocioec

19、onomicstatusandwithmoreeconomicmeansaremorelikelytoconsumevegetablesandfruit,particularlyfresh,notonlyinhigherquantitiesbutalsoingreatervariety.Consumerswithincreasingpurchasepowerhavebecomepreoccupiedwithhealthyeating,thereforeproducersandretailershaverespondedwithanarrayofexoticfreshfruitsoriginat

20、ingfromaroundtheworld.AnymajorgrocerystorearoundtheworldislikelytocarrytangerinesfromSouthAfrica,applesfromNewZealand,bananasfromCostaRicaandasparagusfromMexico.Thus,acoldchainindustryhasemergedtoservicethesecommoditychains.In2002,anestimated1200billiondollarsworthoffoodwastransportedbyafleetof400,0

21、00refrigeratedcontainers(Reefers).Alone,theUnitedStatesimportsabout30%ofitsfruitsandvegetablesand20%ofitsfoodexportscanbeconsideredperishables.Theuncompromisedqualityandsafetyofthisfoodisoftentakenforgranted,despitebeingthemainreasonbehindtheabilitytosellthefood.Thecoldchainservesthefunctionofkeepin

22、gfoodfreshforextendedperiodsandeliminatingdoubtsoverthequalityofthefoodproducts.Inallthesupplychainsitisconcernedwith,coldchainlogisticsfavorhigherlevelsofintegrationsincemaintainingtemperatureintegrityrequiresahigherlevelofcontrolofalltheprocessesinvolved.Itmayevenincitethirdpartylogisticsproviders

23、toacquireelementsofthesupplychainwheretimeandotherperformancefactorsarethemostimportant,evenfarming.Thismayinvolvetheacquisitionofproducefarms(e.g.oranges)toinsuresupplyreliability.ProvidingTemperatureControlledEnvironmentsThesuccessofindustriesthatrelyonthecoldchaincomesdowntoknowinghowtoshipaprodu

24、ctwithtemperaturecontroladaptedtotheshippingcircumstances.Differentproductsrequiredifferenttemperaturelevelmaintenancetoensuretheirintegritythroughoutthetravelprocess.Forinstance,themostcommontemperaturestandardsarebanana(13C),chill(2C),frozen(-18C)anddeepfrozen(-29C).Stayingwithinthistemperatureisv

25、italtotheintegrityofashipmentalongthesupplychainandforperishablesitenablestoinsureandoptimalshelflife.Anydivergencecanresultinirrevocableandexpensivedamage;aproductcansimplyloseanymarketorusefulvalue.Beingabletoensurethatashipmentwillremainwithinatemperaturerangeforanextendedperiodoftimecomesdownlar

26、gelytothetypeofcontainerthatisusedandtherefrigerationmethod.Factorssuchasdurationoftransit,thesizeoftheshipmentandtheambientoroutsidetemperaturesexperiencedareimportantindecidingwhattypeofpackagingisrequired.Theycanrangefromsmallinsulatedboxesthatrequiredryiceorgelpacks,rollingcontainers,toa53footer

27、reeferwhichhasitsownpoweredrefrigerationunit.Themajorcoldchaintechnologiesinvolve:Dryice.Solidcarbondioxide,isabout-80Candiscapableofkeepingashipmentfrozenforanextendedperiodoftime.Itisparticularlyusedfortheshippingofpharmaceuticals,dangerousgoodsandfoodstuffs.Dryicedoesnotmelt,insteaditsublimateswh

28、enitcomesincontactwithair.Gelpacks.Largesharesofpharmaceuticalandmedicinalshipmentsareclassifiedaschilledproducts,whichmeanstheymustbestoredinatemperaturerangebetween2and8C.Thecommonmethodtoprovidethistemperatureistousegelpacks,orpackagesthatcontainphasechangingsubstancesthatcangofromsolidtoliquidan

29、dviceversatocontrolanenvironment.Dependingontheshippingrequirements,thesepackscaneitherstartoffinafrozenorrefrigeratedstate.Alongthetransitprocesstheymelttoliquids,whileatthesametimecapturingescapingenergyandmaintaininganinternaltemperature.Eutecticplates.Theprincipleissimilartogelpacks.Instead,plat

30、esarefilledwithaliquidandcanbereusedmanytimes.Liquidnitrogen.Anespeciallycoldsubstance,ofabout-196C,usedtokeeppackagesfrozenoveralongperiodoftime.Mainlyusedtotransportbiologicalcargosuchastissuesandorgans.Itisconsideredasanhazardoussubstanceforthepurposeoftransportation.Quilts.Insulatedpiecesthatare

31、placedoveroraroundfreighttoactasbufferintemperaturevariationsandtomaintainthetemperaturerelativelyconstant.Thus,frozenfreightwillremainfrozenforalongertimeperiod,oftenlongenoughnottojustifytheusageofmoreexpensiverefrigerationdevices.Quiltscanalsobeusedtokeeptemperaturesensitivefreightatroomtemperatu

32、rewhileoutsideconditionscansubstantiallyvary(e.g.duringthesummerorthewinter).Reefers.Genericnameforatemperaturecontrolledcontainer,whichcanbeavan,smalltruck,asemiorastandardISOcontainer.Thesecontainers,whichareinsulated,arespeciallydesignedtoallowtemperaturecontrolledaircirculationmaintainedbyanatta

33、chedandindependentrefrigerationplant.ThetermincreasinglyapplytorefrigeratedfortyfootISOcontainers.Perishableortemperaturesensitiveitemsarecarriedinrefrigeratedcontainers(calledreefers),thataccountforagrowingshareoftherefrigeratedcargobeingtransportedaroundtheworld.Whilein198033%oftherefrigeratedtran

34、sportcapacityinmaritimeshippingwascontainerized,thissharerapidlyclimbedto47%in1990,68%in2000and90%in2010.About1.69millionTEUsofreeferswerebeingusedby2009.Allreefersarepaintedwhitetoincreasethealbedo(shareoftheincidentlightbeingreflected;highalbedoimplieslesssolarenergyabsorbedbythesurface)withthedom

35、inantsizebeing40high-cubefooters(45R1beingthesizeandtypecode).Forinstancealowalbedocontainercanhaveitsinternaltemperatureincreaseto50Cwhentheexternaltemperaturereaches25Conasunnydaywhileahighalbedocontainerseeitsinternaltemperatureincreasetoonly38Cunderthesameconditions.Therefrigerationunitofareefer

36、requiresanelectricpowersourceduringtransportationandatacontaineryard.Regularcontainershipshave10to20%oftheirslotsadaptedtocarryreefers,withsomeshipshavingupto25%oftheirslotsbeingdedicated.Itisimportanttounderlinethattherefrigerationunitsaredesignedtomaintainthetemperaturewithinaprefixedrange,nottoco

37、olitdown.Thisimpliesthattheshipmentmustbebroughttotherequiredtemperaturebeforebeingloadedintoareefer,whichrequiresspecializedwarehousingandloading/unloadingfacilities.Anewgenerationofreefersiscomingonline,whichareequippedwithanarrayofsensorsmonitoringeffectivelythetemperatureandshuttingthecoolingpla

38、ntwhenunnecessary.Thisenablestoimprovethereliabilityoftemperaturecontrolandwellasextendtheautonomyofthereefer.Thegrowthoftheintermodaltransportationofreefershasincreasinglyrequiredtransportterminals,namelyports,todedicateapartoftheirstorageyardstoreefers.Thisaccountsbetween1%to5%ofthetotalterminalca

39、pacity,butcanbehigherfortransshipmenthubs.Thestackingrequirementssimplyinvolvehavinganadjacentpoweroutlet,butthetaskismorelaborintensiveaseachcontainermustbepluggedandunpluggedmanuallyandthetemperaturetobemonitoredregularlyasitistheresponsibilityoftheterminaloperatortoinsurethatthereeferskeeptheirte

40、mperaturewithinpresetranges.Thismayalsoforbidtheusageofanoverheadgantrycraneimplyingthatthereeferstackingareacanbeservicedbydifferentequipment.Evenifreefersinvolvehigherterminalcosts,theyareveryprofitableduetothehighvaluecommoditiestheytransport.TheSettingandOrganizationofColdChainsMovingashipmentac

41、rossthesupplychainwithoutsufferinganysetbacksortemperatureanomaliesrequirestheestablishmentofacomprehensivelogisticalprocessthemaintaintheshipmentintegrity.Thisprocessconcernsseveralphasesrangingfromthepreparationoftheshipmentstofinalverificationoftheintegrityoftheshipmentatthedeliverypoint:Shipment

42、preparation.Whenatemperaturesensitiveproductisbeingmoved,itisvitaltofirstassessitscharacteristics.Akeyissueconcernsthetemperatureconditioningoftheshipment,whichshouldbealreadyatthedesiredtemperature.Coldchaindevicesarecommonlydesignedtokeepatemperatureconstant,butnottobringashipmenttothistemperature

43、,sotheywouldbeunabletoperformadequatelyifashipmentisnotpreparedandconditioned.Otherconcernsincludethedestinationoftheshipmentandtheweatherconditionsforthoseregions,suchasiftheshipmentwillbeexposedtoextremecoldorheatalongthetransportroute.Modalchoice.Severalkeyfactorsplayintohowtheshipmentwillbemoved

44、.Distancebetweentheoriginandthefinaldestination(whichoftenincludesasetofintermediarylocations),thesizeandweightoftheshipment,therequiredexteriortemperatureenvironmentandanytimerestrictionsoftheproductalleffecttheavailabletransportationoptions.Shortdistancescanbehandledwithavanortruck,whilealongertri

45、pmayrequireanairplaneoracontainership.Customprocedures.Ifthefreightcrossesboundaries,customprocedurescanbecomeveryimportant,sincecoldchainproductstendtobetimesensitiveandmoresubjecttoinspectionthanregularfreight(e.g.pharmaceuticalsandbiologicalsamples).Thedifficultyofthistaskdiffersdependingonthenat

46、ion(oreconomicbloc)andthegatewaysincetherearevariationsinproceduresanddelays.TheLastMile.Thelaststageistheactualdeliveryoftheshipmenttoitsdestination,whichinlogisticsisoftenknownasthelastmile.eyconsiderationswhenarrangingafinaldeliveryconcernnotonlythedestination,butthetiming.Trucksandvans,theprimar

47、ymodesoftransportationforthisstage,mustmeetthespecificationsnecessarytotransferthecoldchainshipment.Alsoimportantisthefinaltransferoftheshipmentintothestoragefacilitiesasthereispotentialforabreachofintegrity.Integrityandqualityassurance.Aftertheshipmenthasbeendelivered,anytemperaturerecordingdevices

48、orknowntemperatureanomaliesmustberecordedandmadeknown.Thisisthestepofthelogisticalprocessthatcreatestrustandaccountability,particularlyifliabilityforadamagedshipmentisincurred.Ifproblemsoranomaliesthatcompromiseashipmentdooccur,aneffortmustbemadetoidentifythesourceandfindcorrectiveactions.Therefore,

49、thesettingandoperationofcoldchainsisdependentontheconcernedsupplychainssinceeachcargounittobecarriedhasdifferentrequirementsintermsofdemand,loadintegrityandtransportintegrity.FoodTransportationThereisavarietyofmethodsforthetransportoffoodproductswiththebananaaccountingfortheworldsmostsignificantcomm

50、oditytransportedinthefoodcoldchainwith20%ofallseabornereeferstrade.Land,seaandairmodesallhavedifferentstructuresforkeepingfoodfreshthroughoutthetransportchain.Innovationsinpackaging,fruitandvegetablecoatings,bioengineering(controlledripening),andothertechniquesreducingthedeteriorationoffoodproductsh

51、avehelpedshippersextendthereachofperishableproducts.Forfoodproductssuchasfruitsandvegetables,timehasadirectimpactontheirshelflifeandthereforeonthepotentialrevenueaconsignmentmaygenerate.Concomitantly,newtransporttechnologieshavepermittedtheshipmentofperishableproductsoverlongerdistances.Forinstance,

52、improvedroadsandintermodalconnectionsalongtheAfricancoastreducedtransporttimeforfoodtoEuropeanmarketsfrom10daysto4days.Certaindomesticortransnationalsupplychainsmayonlyrequireonetransportationmode,butmanytimesgroundshipmentsareonelinkinacombinationoftransportmodes.Thismakesintermodaltransfercritical

53、forthecoldchain.Intermodalshipmentstypicallyuseeither20or40footersrefrigeratedcontainersthatarecapableofholdingupto26tonsoffood.Thecontainermakesloadingandunloadingperiodsshorterandlesssusceptibletoexperiencingdamage.Theenvironmentsinthesecontainersarecurrentlycontrolledelectronicallybyeitherpluggin

54、gintoageneratororpowersourceontheshiportruck,butearlyfoodshipmentswouldcycleairfromstoresofwetordryicetokeepthefoodrefrigerated.Theefficiencyofcoldchainlogisticspermittedtheconsolidationofcoldstoragefacilities.Movingawayfromicerefrigerationhasallowedformuchgreaterdistancestobetraveledandhasgreatlyin

55、creasedthesizeoftheglobalfoodmarket,enablingmanydevelopingcountriestocapturenewopportunities.Anotherefficientmodefortransportingfoodstuffsisairtravel.Whilethisisapreferredformoftravelforhighlyperishableandvaluablegoodsduetoitsabilitytomovemuchfasteroverlongerdistances,itdoeslacktheenvironmentcontrol

56、andtransfereaseofthegroundandseatransports.Also,duringtheflightthecargoisstoredina15C20Cenvironment,butcloseto80%ofthetimethepackageisexposedtoexteriorweatherwhilewaitingtobeloadedontotheplaneorbeingmovedtoandfromtheairfield.Thisistroublingconsideringthevalueofthefoodandtheimportanceplacedbehindqual

57、ityandfreshness.Inorderforthisformoffoodtransporttoexperiencegrowthamongmarketusers,moreuncompromisingstrategiesandregulationswillhavetobeembracedandenacted.Foodtransportationisanindustrythathasfullyadaptedtothecoldchainandcan,despitetheproblemswithairtransport,beconsideredthemostresilient,particula

58、rlysincealargemajorityoffoodproductshaveabettertolerancetotemporaryvariationsoftransporttemperatures.Asaresult,smallerrorscanbecompoundedwithouttheconcernofirreversibledamage.Forinstance,forthetransportationofproduces,foreveryhourofdelayintheprecoolingofshipments,anequivalentonedaylossofshelflifemus

59、tbeaccounted.Theusageofrefrigeratedcontainershasparticularlyhelped,sincetheyaccountformorethan50%ofalltherefrigeratedcargotransportedintheworld.Sourceloadingcanbeanimportantfactorextendingtheshelflifeofacoldchainproductsinceitisloadedinareeferdirectlyattheplaceofproductionwithoutadditionalhandling.F

60、orinstance,sourceloadingintoareefercanexpandtheshelflifeofchilledmeatbyabout25days(from30-35daysto55-60days)fromconventionalmethodsandthusconsiderablyexpandthemarketpotentialoftheproduct.Theefficiencyandreliabilityoftemperaturecontrolledtransportationhasreachedapointwhichallowsthefoodindustrytotakea