瞳孔大小的认知指示课件

GuangzhouWorkshopEyetrackingtechnologyapplicationinpupilometryPupilsizeandCognitionTalkOutlineBackgroundHistoryPhysiology/PharmacologyFactorseffectingpupilsize(non-cognitive)EarlyResearchintopupilsizeandcognition3)RecordingpupilsizechangesPupilsizeandcognition“Nootherpartofthebodysuppliesgreaterindicationsofthemind–thisissowithallanimalsalike,butspeciallywithman”

(PhilosopherPliny–AD23-79–talkingabouteyes...)“…theeyeisnotonlyapassiveorganandoneofthegatewaysofknowledge,butisalsoaportalthroughwhichtheworkingofthebrainbecomesmanifest.”SamuelWilks,1883,p.5-6.Theeyesareconsideredthemostexpressivepartoftheface–welookattheeyesmoreoftenandlonger.PupilsizeandcognitionWilliamHarvey,Physician(1578-1657)“Inanger,theeyesarefiery,andthepupilsaredilated”Twomusclegroupsregulatethesizeofthepupil:circular

sphincterpupillaecontracttomakethepupilsmaller,radialdilatorpupillaecontracttomakethepupillarger.circularsphincterpupillaeradialdilatorpupillaeEarlycommentsontherelationshipbetweenpupilsizeandemotion:PupilsizeandcognitionThesphincteranddilatormusclesareinnervatedbytheAutonomicNervousSystem(ANS)parasympatheticandsympatheticpupillomotorfibresofthethirdcranialnerverespectively(Foster,1891;Reeves,&Swenson,2004).Tonicactivationinbothsystemsbalanceeachothertoproduceanaveragewakingpupil-sizeinambientilluminationof2-6mm,withanaverageof5mmandarangeof1-9mm(Beatty,&Lucero-Wagoner,2000;Reeves,&Swenson,2004).Anincreaseinefferentactivitytoeithermusclegroupleadstoincreasingcentralinhibitionofthemotor-nucleusoftheothergroup(Miller,&Newman,2005).PupilsizeandcognitionPharmacologyofpupilsize:Belladonna(fromtheDeadlyNightshadeplant)containsatropine,whichblockstheparasympatheticinputtothesphinctermuscle.Thisfactwasexploitedby17thCenturyVenetianwomentomakethemselvesappearmoreattractive(BelladonnameansbeautifulwomaninItalian).Anotherexampleoftheancientunderstandingofthepowerofpupilsize!PupilsizeandcognitionWomanwithaMirror–aVenetian“Belladonna”Titian,c1515Ican’tseewhetherherpupilsaredilated…PupilsizeandcognitionPharmacologyofsympatheticpathway:Norepinephrine(NE)actsonthedilatorviaα-adrenergicreceptors,leadingtodilationofthepupil(Fountoulakis,1999).NEagonists,suchasephedrine,andNE-reuptakeinhibitorssuchascocaine,causedilationofthepupilNEantagonists,suchasthymoxamine,relaxthedilatormuscleandreduceitsoppositionofthesphincter.Mydriasis(dilation)canbeinducedcentrallyviaSelectiveSerotonin-ReuptakeInhibitor(SSRI)antidepressantsandLysergicAcidDiethylamide(LSD),aswellasN-Methyl-D-Aspartate(NMDA)glutamateantagonists,suchasketamine,inadditiontoopioidwithdrawalandalcoholpoisoning(Doughty,2001;Foster,1891).PupilsizeandcognitionNon-cognitiveinfluencesonpupilsize:2)Thelid-closurereflexThelid-closurereflexmanifestsasasystematicmiosis(ofaround8%surfacearea),occurringafterblinks,whichisfollowedbyredilation(DeLaunay,1949;Hupé,Lamirel,&Lorenceau,2009;Loewenfeld,1999)Someresearchershaveobservedonlyadilationaftereye-blinks(Fukuda,Stern,Brown,&Russo,2005).PupilsizeandcognitionNon-cognitiveinfluencesonpupilsize:4)PupiliaryHippusTheirisisavascularstructureandrhythmicchangesinpupil-sizeofaround1%occurwithheartbeatandbreathingduetofluctuationsinbloodpressure(Foster,1891).However,thereareotherrhythmicbutirregular,oscillating,consensual(thereforeofcentralorigin)contractionsanddilationsofreasonablylargeamplitude~1mm(10-20%)withaperiodofbetween5-25s(0.04-0.2Hz;Bouma,&Baghuis,1971;Thispupillaryunrestisalsoknownas‘hippus’(possiblyfromhippos,Greekfor‘horse’,

suggestiveofagallopingrhythm;

Beatty,&Lucero-Wagoner,2000Hippusisinducedbychangesinlightinglevel,becomingmoreobviousinbrighterlightandwhenthepupilissmall(Bouma,&Baghuis,1971;Miller,&Newman,2005).PupilsizeandcognitionRoleoftheLocusCeruleus(LC)TheLocusCoeruleus(LC)isaneuromodulatorynucleusinthedorsalponsofthebrainstemwhichrespondstosalientstimuli(e.g.,targets)withatransientincreaseinfiringrate.TheLCprojectsthroughouttheforebrain,providingalloftheforebrainandmostofthebrain’sNorepinephrine(NE).ThisinfluencemakestheLCpartlyresponsibleforregulatingallcognitive,emotionalandmotivationalstates(seeBerridge,&Waterhouse,2003,forareview)TheLCreceivesafferentsfromtheAnteriorCingulateCortex(ACC)andOrbitofrontalCortex(OFC),whichAston-JonesandCohen(2005)havearguedareinvolvedinmonitoring“task-relatedutility”andsupplyinginformationaboutconflictandrewardinthecognitivesystem(Aston-Jonesetal.,2002;Botvinick,Braver,Barch,Carter,&Cohen,2001)TheLC-NEsystemalsoplaysaroleinwakefulness(Aston-Jones,Foote,&Bloom,1984;Jouvet,1969),simpledecision-makingandtheregulationoftaskengagementthroughdistributionofattentionalresources(e.g.,Aston-Jones,Rajkowski,&Kubiak,1997;Clayton,Rajkowski,Cohen,&Aston-Jones,2004)Recentresearchhasarguedthatitplaysamajorroleinthemodulationofthepsychosensorypupillaryresponse(Gilzenrat,2006).PupilsizeandcognitionRoleoftheLocusCeruleus(LC)Ahighcorrelation(0.6)betweenspikefrequencyandpupildiameterhasbeenfound,wherebylargepupildiameterequatestohighLCactivity(Rajkowski,Kubiak,&Aston-Jones,1993;1994)PupilsizeandcognitionPsychosensoryfluctuationsinpupil-sizeareusuallynomorethan0.5-1.0mmandarethereforedifficulttoseewiththenakedeye(Beatty,1982b;Beatty,&Lucero-Wagoner,2000)Thesetinyyetconsistentpupillarychangeshavenoapparentfunctionalpurposeorevolutionarycost,andappeartoreflectdynamicchangesincognitiveprocessing(Beatty,&Lucero-Wagoner,2000).Althoughthepupilisunderperipheralautonomiccontrol,withoutanobviouslinktocentralprocessing,evidenceshowsthatthevariationsreliablyandpreciselytrackchangesincognition(Beatty,1982b;1986;Goldwater,1972).Describedas“apermanentlyimplantedelectrode”and“theonlyvisiblepartofthebrain”(Janisse,1977,p.1),thepupilisofparticularinteresttocognitivepsychophysiologyresearchersbecauseitpotentiallyprovidesauniquephysiologicalreportervariabletomeasurepsychologicalprocessesindependentlyofsubjectivereport(Beatty,&Lucero-Wagoner,2000).PupilsizeandcognitionTask-evokedpupil-sizechangesbegin400mspost-stimulus(Partala,&Surakka,2003),peakingafteraround1-2s,andconstrictingoncethetaskiscomplete,eitherslowly(Kahneman,&Beatty,1966;Hess,1972)orrapidly(Bernhardt,Dabbs,&Riad,1996)dependantonpost-processing.Likeotherpsychophysiologicalmeasures,suchasbloodflowinfunctionalMagneticResonanceImaging(fMRI),ithasbeenarguedthatpupillarychangesprovideanindirectmeasureofprocessingintensitywithoutcausallinksorfacevalidity(Just,&Carpenter,1993).Assuchtheyarealsosubjecttotheproblemof‘psychophysiologicalinference’(theassumptionthataphysiologicalresponsehasaconsistentone-to-oneandcontext-independentrelationshipwiththepsychologicalvariableofinterest)originallyraisedbyWilliamJames(1890)Giventhevastnumberoffactorsinfluencingpupil-size,andthenumerousafferentpathwaysinvolved,animportantquestioniswhetheritispossibletoisolateandstudythesystematiceffectsofindividualinfluenceswithinthepupillarysignal.PupilsizeandcognitionNonreflexinfluencesonpupilsize:AROUSAL:“Arousal”–veryvagueterm-usedbydifferentresearcherstorefertoavarietyofconstructs,suchasemotions,sexualattraction,orattention,eachofwhichhasalargeandoverlappingliterature(seeStaal,2004;Neiss,1988).Themostpopularizedpupillometryarousalresearchhasinvolvedsex,racismorfear;forexample,usingpicturesofnudes(Lawless,&Wake,1968),peopleofdifferentraces(Woodmansee,1967),orfearofelectricshock(Polt,1970).Stimuliweredesignedtoelevateparticipants’mentalandphysicalarousal,stimulatingthesympatheticnervoussystemandthereleaseofadrenalineintothebloodstream,leadingtopupildilation.Hundredsofstudieshaveshownincreasingarousalincreasespupildilation(seeLuceroWagner,2000forareview).PupilsizeandcognitionCognitiveEffort:-Kahneman’sResearchThemajorityofpupilresearchfromthe1960sonwardsconcernstherelationshipbetweenpupil-sizeand“cognitiveeffort”Thisisacomplexconceptwhichcanbeconsideredastheproportionofavailableattentionalresourcesassignedtoatask(seeCain,2007;Moray,1979).Otherrelatedconceptsinclude“mentalworkload”and“processingload”(Beatty,1982b;Kahneman,1973).AkeyplayerincognitiveeffortresearchwasNobelPrizewinner

DanielKahneman,whomJanisse(1977)creditswiththemethodicalexplorationoftheconceptsofcognitive“loading”and“unloading”,“processing”,“mentaleffort”and“rehearsal”withinpupillometricresearch.Kahneman(1973)arguedthatgeneral“arousal”canbeseenasaresponsetotaskdemands,andtherefore“mentaleffort”ispartofarousal.PupilsizeandcognitionHundredsofstudieshaveshownthatincreasedcognitiveeffortresultsinincreasedpupilsize.TaskKeyPupil-SizeFindingsSelectedAuthorsIncentiveLargerforhighthanlowincentivesKahneman,&Peavler,1969;Kahneman,Peavler,&Onuska,1968RandommotorresponseslargerwhenparticipantchosetomovethanwheninstructedSimpson,&Hale,1969VisualsearchLargerformoredifficultsearches;increasesastaskprogresses(memoryload?)Pomplun,&Sunkara,2003;Porter,Trościanko,&Gilchrist,2007SpatialabilityIncreasedwithangulardisparitywhenjudgingirregularhexagons;greaterdilationsforlowthanhighspatialabilityparticipantsJust,&Carpenter,1995ProcessingspeedIncreasedat75%&100%maxprocessingspeedcapacity,constrictionat125%Poock,1973DeceptionLargerforguilty/lyingthaninnocent/truthfulparticipantsBerrien,&Huntington,1943;Dionisio,Granholm,Hillix,&Perrine,2001PupilsizeandcognitionHundredsofstudieshaveshownthatincreasedcognitiveeffortresultsinincreasedpupilsize.TaskKeyPupil-SizeFindingsSelectedAuthorsWorkingMemoryIncreasesasworkingmemoryincreasesKahneman&Beatty,1966;Peavler(1974)LanguageandComprehensionPupilsizeincreaseswithcomplexityoflanguageprocessing,suchasspeechperception,languagetranslation,letterperception,syntaxandsemanticprocessing.Zekveld,Kramer,&Festen,2011;Hyönä,Tommola,&Alaja,1995;Beatty,&Wagoner,1978;Schluroff,1982;Hyönäetal.,1995ImageryImaginingconcretenounsincreasespupilsizeoverabstractnouns.Imaginingbrightscenesdecreasespupilsizecomparedtoimaginingdarkscenes!Pavio,1966LieDetectionIncreasedcognitiveeffortinvolvedintellingliesincreasespupilsize.PupilOld/Neweffectalsoimportant.Bradley,&Janisse,1975;Heaver&Hutton,2011;Otero,Weekes&Hutton2010MemoryPupilOld/Neweffect–pupilsizeincreaseswhenrecognisingolditemsHeaver&Hutton,2011;Otero,Weekes&Hutton2010TheEyeLinksystemsprovidesamplelevelpupilsizedata.InrecentyearsmanyresearchershavebeguntoreportandinterpretpupildatarecordedbyeyetrackersMuchofthisresearchisnotverygood…Thereareseveralthingsthatshouldbeborninmindwhenrecording/interpretingpupilsizedatafromvideo-basedeyetrackersPupilometry:MeasuringPupilsizewithEyeLinkLuminancelevelsmustbecontrolled:DuetothePupiliaryLightReflex,researchersshouldcontrol:backgroundillumination,forexampleconstantartificiallightingtheglobalandlocalluminanceofthestimuli,especiallywhenpresentedonacomputerscreen(Janisse,1977).Pictorialandphotographicstimulihavebeenstronglycriticisedbecausetheyvarygreatlyinluminancebothgloballybetweenstimuliandlocallywithindifferentregionsofasinglestimulus,whichcancreateartefactualpupil-sizechanges(e.g.,Goldwater,1972;Janisse,1977;Woodmansee,1970;Zuckerman,1971).Thelightanddarkpropertiesofimagescangeneratepupil-sizechangesofaroundthesamemagnitudeaspsychosensorychanges(Janisse,1977)andshouldbetakenintoconsiderationwhenemployingvisualscanning(Pomplun,&Sunkara,2003;VanOrden,Limbert,Makeig,&Jung,2001),visualsearch(Backs,&Walrath,1992;Porter,Trościanko,&Gilchrist,2007)orphotographs(Dabbs,&Milun,1999;Libby,Lacey,&Lacey,1973PupilometrySeveralotherthingsinfluencepupilsizeasreportedbytheEyeLinksystems:GAZEPOSITION–Thisisbecausethecameraisfixedbuttheeyerotates….PupilometrySoinrotatedpositionsthepupilappearsasanellipse(withsmallerarea)tothecamera–EVENTHOUGHITHASN’TCHANGEDSIZE!SoEITHERUsesmall/central/isoluminantstimuli(ornostimuliatall!)OR2)Ensurethatluminance/gazepositionisnotaconfound–eitherbybalancingacrossconditionsorbyincludingasacovariateinanyanalysis.PupilometryToconvertarbitraryAREAunitstommtakethefollowingsteps:1)Printoutblackcirclewithknowndiameter(say7mm)2)Placeatsameposition/distancefromcameraasparticipant’seye3)Enablepupilonlymode(instructionsfollow)4)Recordfor5seconds5)UseaveragedatatocreateconversionfactorPupilometrySoifartificialpupilof7mmgivesAREAvalueof7070:Convertpupildata(x)bysqrt(x)/sqrt(7070)*7PupilometryAREA MM6000 6.4485780155990 6.4432019595970 6.4324363685950 6.4216527285900 6.394614075975 6.4351294546000 6.4485780156100 6.5020941037070 7.0Toenablepupilonlymodeaddthefollowinglinestofinal.ini

##force_corneal_reflection=<Value>

;;Hides"Pupil"

mode

buttononCameraSetupscreen

;;

Pupil

Only