国际贸易理论-外文翻译

外文翻译原文internationaltradetheoryMaterialSource:BostoncollegeAuthor:JamesE.AndersonAdamSmith(1776)heldthatacountrycouldgainfromfreetrade.Hepointedoutthatifonecountryhasanabsoluteadvantageovertheotherinoneproductionandtheothercountryhasanabsoluteadvantageoverthefirstinanotherproduction,bothcountriesgainfromtrading.ButSmithfailedtocreateaconvincingeconomictheoryofinternationaltrade.ItisgenerallyagreedthatDavidRicardoisthecreatoroftheclassicaltheoryofinternationaltrade.Thetheoriesofcomparativeadvantageandthegainsfromtradeareusuallyconnectedwithhisname,eventhoughmanyconcreteideasabouttradeexistedbeforehisPrinciples(Ricardo,1817).Inthistheorythecrucialvariableusedtoexplaininternationaltradepatternsistechnology.Thetheoryholdsthatadifferenceincomparativecostsofproductionisthenecessaryconditionfortheexistenceofinternationaltrade.Butthisdifferencereflectsadifferenceintechniquesofproduction.Accordingtothistheory,technologicaldifferencesbetweencountriesdetermineinternationaldivisionoflaborandconsumptionandtradepatterns.Itholdsthattradeisbeneficialtoallparticipatingcountries.TheRicardiantheoryfailedtodeterminethetermsoftrade,eventhoughitcanbeusedtodeterminethelimitsinwhichthetermsoftrademustlie.Itwasrecognizedlongagothatinordertodeterminethetermsoftrade,itisnecessarytobuildtradetheorywhichnotonlytakesaccountoftheproductivesidebutalsothedemandside.Theneoclassicaltheoryholdsthatthedeterminantsoftradepatternsaretobefoundsimultaneouslyinthedifferencesbetweenthetechnologies,thefactorendowments,andthetastesofdifferentcountries.Preferenceaccountsfortheexistenceofinternationaltradeeveniftechnologiesandfactorendowmentswerecompletelyidenticalbetweencountries.TheMarshallianoffercurvehasbeenoftenusedtoanalyzeproblemssuchastheexistenceofequilibrium,thestabilityofequilibrium,thegainsfromtrade,andoptimumtariffsandsoonwithinstaticframeworks.Millintroducedtheequationofinternationaldemand,accordingtowhichthetermsoftradearedeterminedsoastoequatethevalueofexportsandthevalueofimports.Heargued:“theexportsandimportsbetweenthetwocountries(or,ifwesupposemorethantwo,betweeneachcountryandtheworld)mustintheaggregatepayforeachother,andmustthereforebeexchangedforoneanotheratsuchvaluesaswillbecompatiblewiththeequationoftheinternationaldemand”.Millinitiatedthetheoryofreciprocaldemandwhichisoneoftheearliestexamplesofgeneralequilibriumanalysisintradetheory.TheRicardianmodelandHeckscher-Ohlinmodelaretwobasicmodelsoftradeandproduction.Theyprovidethepillarsuponwhichmuchofpuretheoryofinternationaltraderests.Theso-calledHeckscher-Ohlinmodelhasbeenoneofthedominantmodelsofcomparativeadvantageinmoderneconomics.TheHeckscher-Ohlintheoryemphasizesthedifferencesbetweenthefactorendowmentsofdifferentcountriesanddifferencesbetweencommoditiesintheintensitieswithwhichtheyusethesefactors.Thebasicmodeldealswithalong-termgeneralequilibriuminwhichthetwofactorsarebothmobilebetweensectorsandthecauseoftradeisdifferentcountrieshavingdifferentrelativefactorendowments.Thistheoryexaminestheimpactoftradeonfactoruseandfactorrewards.ThetheoryisdifferentfromtheRicardianmodelwhichisolatesdifferencesintechnologybetweencountriesasthebasisfortrade.IntheHeckscher-Ohlintheorycostsofproductionareendogenousinthesensethattheyaredifferentinthetradeandautarkysituations,evenwhenallcountrieshaveaccesstothesametechnologyforproducingeachgood.Thismodelhasbeenamainstreamofinternationaltradetheory.AccordingtoEthier(1974),thistheoryhasfour“coreproportions”.Inthesimplecaseoftwo-commodityandtwo-countryworldeconomy,wehavethesefourpropositions(whichareofcourseheldundercertainconditions)asfollows:(1)factor-priceequalizationtheorembyLerner(1952)andSamuelson(1948,1949),statingthatfreetradeinfinalgoodsalonebringsaboutcompleteinternationalequalizationoffactorprices;(2)Stolper-SamuelsontheorybyStolperandSamuelson(1941),sayingthatanincreaseintherelativepriceofonecommodityraisestherealreturnofthefactorusedintensivelyinproducingthatcommodityandlowerstherealreturnoftheotherfactor;(3)RybczynskitheorembyRybczynski(1955),statingthatifcommoditypricesareheldfixed,anincreaseintheendowmentofonefactorcausesamorethanproportionateincreaseintheoutputofthecommoditywhichusesthatfactorrelativelyintensivelyandanabsolutedeclineintheoutputoftheothercommodity;and(4)Heckscher-OhlintheorembyHeckscher(1919)andOhlin(1933),statingthatacountrytendstohaveabiastowardsproducingandexportingthecommoditywhichusesintensivelythefactorwithwhichitisrelativelywell-endowed.TheHeckscher-Ohlintheoryprovidessimpleandintuitiveinsightsintotherelationshipsbetweencommoditypricesandfactorprices,factorsuppliesandfactorrewards,andfactorendowmentsandthepatternofproductionandtrade.AlthoughtheHeckscher-Ohlinmodelwasthedominantframeworkforanalyzingtradeinthe1960s,ithadneithersucceededinsupplantingtheRicardianmodelnorhadbeenreplacedbythespecific-factortrademodels.Eachtheoryhasbeenrefinedwithin‘smallscales,.Eachtheoryislimitedtoarangeofquestions.Itisarguedthatasfarasgeneralideasareconcerned,theHeckscher-Ohlintheorymaybeconsideredasaspecialcaseoftheneoclassicaltheorymentionedbeforeasitacceptsallthelogicalpromisesofneoclassicalmethodology.TheHeckscher-Olintheorymaybeseenasaspecialcaseoftheneoclassicaltradetheoryinwhichproductiontechnologyandpreferencesareinternationallyidentical.Thislossofgeneralityhaslongbeenheldnecessaryinordertoconstructaclearpictureofinternationaltradepatternsanddivisionoflaborandconsumption.Ricardo,sinitialdiscussionoftheconceptofcomparativeadvantageislimitedtothecasewhenfactorsofproductionareimmobileinternationally.TheHeckscher-Ohlintheoryissimilarlylimitedtothestudyofhowmovementsofcommoditiescansubstituteforinternationalmovementsofproductivefactors.Itisobviousthatiftechnologiesareeverywhereidenticalandifproductionissufficientlydiversified,factorpricesbecomeequalizedbetweencountries.Butifproductionfunctionsdifferbetweencountries,nopresumptionastofactorequalizationremains.Mostofearlycontributionstotradetheorydealwithgoodstradeonlyandignoreinternationalmobilityoffactorsofproduction.ForalongperiodoftimesinceRi-ardo,theclassicalmobilityassumptionhadbeenwellaccepted.Thisassumptiontellsthatallfinalgoodsaretradablebetweencountrieswhereasprimaryinputsarenon-tradable,thoughtheyarefullymobilebetweendifferentsectorsofthedomesticeconomy.Inreality,thisclassicalassumptionisinvalidinmanycircumstances.Forinstance,manykindsoffinal'goods,services,arenot-tradeandcapitalsarefullymobilebetweencountriesaswellaswithindomesticeconomies.Agreatdealofworksontradetheoryhasbeenconcernedwithexaminingtheconsequencesofdeparturesfromtheseassumptions.Thereisanextensiveliteratureonvariousaspectsofinternationalfactormobility.ItmaybetruetosaythatmostofthepuretheoryofinternationaltradeemergedfromRicardo,sPrinciples.ThefurtherdevelopmentofthesubjectbyMill,MarshallandEdgeworthremainedlargelywithintheboundssetbyRicardo.Sincethen,therehadbeenmuchattentionfocusedonthedeterminationofthetermsoftradebyreciprocaldemandwithinframe-worksofmanygoods,countriesandfactorsundervariousformsofintervention.AsmentionedbyFindlay(1984),onetopicthatwasalmostentirelyabsentfromthepuretheoryofinternationaltradewasanyconsiderationoftheconnectionbetweeneconomicgrowthandinternationaltradeinclassicalliteratureofeconomictheory.Almostallthetrademodelsdevelopedbeforethe1960sarestaticinthesensethatthesuppliesoffactorsofproductionaregivenanddonotvaryovertime;theclassicalRicardiantheoryofcomparativeadvantageandtheHeckscher-Ohlintheoryarestaticsincelaborandcapitalstocks(orland)areassumedtobegivenandconstantovertime.AlthoughMarshallheldthatitisimportanttostudyinternationaltradeinordertobeclearofthecauseswhichdeterminetheeconomicprogressesofnations,ithasonlybeeninthelastthreeorfourdecadesthattradetheoryhasmadesomesystematicaltreatmentofendogenouscapitalaccumulationortechnologicalchangesinthecontextofinternationaleconomics.Eaton(1987)proposedadynamictwo-sector,threefactorsmodelofinternationaltrade.ThedynamicspecificationofthemodelisbasedonSamuelson's(1958)overlappinggeneration,smodel.ThedynamicmodelateachpointoftimetproposedbyEatonisidenticaltothethree-factor,two-commoditymodelexaminedinastaticcontextbyJones(1971),Samuelson(1971)andMussa(1974).ThemodeltriestoextendtheHeck-scher-Ohlintheorytoincludeendowmentsoffactorasendogenousvariables.Inthismodellandandcapitalservenotonlyasfactorsofproductionbutalsoasassetswhichindividualsusetotransferincomefromworkingperiodstoretirement.Themodelshowsthatchangesinthetermsoftradeandintheendowmentsoffixedfactorsdonotnecessarilyhavethesameeffectsonfactorpricesandonthecompositionofoutputastheydoinastaticframework.Someresultsobtainedfromthespecific-factorsmodelabouttherelationshipsbetweencommoditypricesandfactorprices,factorendowmentsandfactorrewards,andfactorendowmentsandthepatternofproductionarenotheldinthedynamicmodel.Forinstance,apermanentincreaseintherelativepriceofonecommoditydoesnotnecessarilylowerthesteady-stateincomeofthefactorspecifictotheindustryproducingtheothercommodity.译文国际贸易理论资料来源:波士顿大学 作者：詹姆斯•安德森亚当•斯密（1776）认为，国家能够从自由贸易中获益。他指出，如果一个国家在某一产品上有着相对于另一国家的绝对优势，而另一个国家在另一种产品上拥有绝对优势，则两个国家都能从贸易中获益。但史密斯却未能创造一个有说服力的国际贸易经济理论。人们普遍认为，DavidRicardo是国际贸易古典理论的创造者，而相对优势论和贸易利益也通常与他的名字相联系，虽然许多有关贸易的具体观点都早于他的原则（DavidRicardo，1817）而存在。在这一理论中，通常用来解释国际贸易模式的关键变量是技术。该理论认为，在生产中比较成本的差异是国际贸易存在的必要条件。但是，这种差异反映了不同的生产技术。根据这一理论，国家之间的技术差别决定了国际分工，消费和贸易格局。它认为，贸易对所有参与国皆有利。李嘉图的理论虽然可以用来规定贸易条件的范围，却未能明确贸易条件。很久以前人们就认识到有必要建立一个贸易理论，不仅要考虑生产方面同时也要考虑需求方面。新古典理论认为，贸易模式的决定因素同时存在于不同国家之间的技术差异，要素禀赋差异，喜好差异。即使国家之间的技术和要素禀赋是完全一致的，喜好不同也能构成国际贸易的存在。马歇尔价格曲线模型常常被用来分析例如均衡的存在性，均衡稳定性，贸易利益以及最适合关税等静态结构内的问题。Mill引进了国际需求方程式，根据此方程确定贸易条件，使出口值与进口值相平衡。他建议：两国之间的进出口（或者，我们假设多于两国之间的贸易）必须在双方的进出口总汇下支付，因此必须转换为另一方这样的价值为能适应方程的国际需求。米尔提出了互惠需求理论，这是在贸易理论上大体均衡分析的最早例子之一。李嘉图模型和赫克歇尔一俄林模型是贸易和生产的两个基本模式。他们给绝大多数国际贸易纯理论提供了可以依赖的支柱。所谓赫克歇尔一俄林模型一直是现代经济学中比较优势的主要模式之一。在赫克歇尔一俄林理论强调不同国家之间要素禀赋的差异以及商品之间利用这些要素的强度差异。这个基本模式处理长期一般均衡，在此均衡中，上述两个因素在各部门间是可变的。贸易的原因是不同的国家有着不同的相关要素禀赋。这一理论探讨了贸易在要素的使用和要素报酬上的影响。这个理论和把国家间的技术差异独立看做贸易基础的李嘉图模型是不同的。在赫克歇尔一俄林理论中，就他们在贸易和自给自足的情况上不同的意义而言，即便当所有国家都能利用想同的技术生产每种商品时，生产成本也是内因性的。这种模式一直是国际贸易理论的主流。据艾舍（1974），这一理论有四个“核心比例”。在只有两种商品和两个国家的世界经济的简单例子中，我们以下这四种命题（当然这是在一定条件下）：（1）勒纳（1952）和萨缪尔森（1948，1949）的要素价格均等定理，表明单单在制成品的自由贸易上带来彻底的国际要素价格均等化；（2）斯托尔帕与萨缪尔森的斯托尔珀-萨缪尔森理论（1941），认为一种商品的相对价格上涨提高了在生产该产品中较多使用的要素的真是回报率，同时降低了其他要素的真是回报率。（3）雷布津斯基的雷布津斯基定理（1955），认为如果商品价格保持稳定，在一个要素禀赋上的增加会引起相对较多利用该要素的产品出产量的过多比例增长以及其他产品出产量的绝对减少。（4）赫克歇尔（1919）和俄林（1933）的赫克歇尔-俄林定理，指出一个国家往往偏向于生产和出口那些较多使用相对丰富的要素的产品。在赫克歇尔一俄林定理提供了对商品价格，要素价格，要素供应，要素回报，要素禀赋以及生产和贸易的模式之间关系的简易直观的深入了解。虽然赫克歇尔一俄林模式是20世纪60年代分析贸易最主要的框架，但它既没有成功地取代李嘉图模式，也没被特定因素贸易模式取代。每个理论都在“小规模”范围内被更正，每一个理论都局限于一定范围的问题。有人认为，就总体思路方面，赫克歇尔一俄林理论可以看作是之前提到过的新古典理论的特殊例子，因为它接受了新古典方法论的所有合逻辑的承诺。在赫克歇尔-奥林理论中，全球产品科技和偏好是相同的，这被视为新古典贸易理论的特殊例子。人们一直认为，为了创建一个清楚的国际贸易模式以及国际分工消费轮廓，这种普遍性的遗失是必要的。李嘉图刚开始对比较优势概念的探讨仅限于国际间生产要素稳定不变。赫克歇尔一俄林理论同样局限于对如何使商品的流通替代生产要素国际流动的研究。显然，如果世界各地的技术是相同的，生产是充分多元化的，那么国家间的生产要素价格也会相持平。但是如果国家之间的生产功能不同，那么要素均衡也必然不会存在。大多数早期的对贸易理论的贡献只涉及商品的交易，而忽略了生产要素的国际流动性。经典的流动性假设被广泛接受已经很长一段时间，这一假设告诉我们所有最终产品在不同国家之间是可流通贸易的，然而基本投入是不可流通贸易的，尽管它们可自由流通于国内经济各部门间。事实上，这种经典假设在很多情况下是不合理的。例如，很多类型的最终产品和服务是不可贸易的，而资金在国家之间乃至国内经济中都是可充分流通的。人们关注这些在贸易理论上的研究结论是否能检验违背这些假设的后果。有关国际要素流通性的各方面研究的作品是非常广泛的。也许可以这么说，大多数的国际贸易纯理论都来自李嘉图的原则。穆勒，马歇尔和埃奇沃斯对国际贸易理论的进一步研究大部分还是保持在Ricardo设定的界限内。正如芬德利（1984）所说的，有一个主题在国际贸易的纯理