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1.1.Thinkofthreeorfour‘telegraphic'sentencesthatayoungchildmightproduce.ThesemaybeinEnglishoranotherlanguageyouknowwell.Howarethese‘littlesentences'similartothoseintheadultlanguage?Howaretheydifferent?“telegraphic”sentences：（1）"Icanseeacow"repeatedas"Seecow"（2） Ihavingthis.I'mhaving'nana.（3）BabyfalldownSimilarities:Theybothcontainthenecessarykeywords,especiallynouns,verbsandadjectivesDifferences:“Telegraphic”sentenceslackfunctionwordslikeprepositionsandconjunctions.Theyareshorter,andgrammaticalelementsareoftenomittedorinsertedincorrectly,andtheyaresingleclauses.2.Researchershaveusedbothlongitudinalandcross-sectionalapproachestoinvestigatetheorderofacquisitionofgrammaticalmorphemesinEnglishbyyoungchildren.Describetheseapproachesinyourownwords.Whatarethechallengesandthepotentialbenefitsofeach?Cross-sectionalapproaches:Aresearchmethodstudiessubjectsatdifferentagesandstagesofdevelopment.Longitudinalstudies:Itisatypeofobservationalstudy.Bylongitudinalstudies,wemeanthatwecanstudylearner'slanguagewithaperiodoftime,onemonth,oneyear,ormore.ThiscontrastswithCross-sectionalstudies.Thechallengesoflongitudinalstudyapproaches:Theyaretime-consumingandmoney-consuming.Also,theyarenotconvenient.Potentialbenefitsoflongitudinalstudyapproaches:Longitudinalstudiestrackthesamepeople,andthereforethedifferencesobservedinthosepeoplearelesslikelytobetheresultofculturaldifferencesacrossgenerations.ThechallengesofCross-sectionalapproaches:Routinedataarenotdesignedtoanswerthespecificquestion.PotentialbenefitsofCross-sectionalapproaches:.Theuseofroutinelycollecteddataallowslargecross-sectionalstudiestobemadeatlittleornoexpense.3.Whatisthe‘wugtest'?WhatdothefindingsfromthewugtesttellusaboutChildren'sdevelopinglanguage?Whatadvantagesdoesthewugtesthaveoverstudiesthatobservechildren'slanguageinnaturalsettings?Canyouthinkofsomedisadvantages?（1） “Wugtest”isaproceduretoexplorechildren'sknowledgeoflanguagedevelopedbyJeanBerkoGleason.ItwasdesignedasawaytoinvestigatetheacquisitionofthepluralandotherinflectionalmorphemesinEnglish-speakingchildren.Bytheageofthree-and-a-halforfouryears,mostchildrencanaskquestions,givecommands,reportrealevents,andcreatestoriesaboutimaginaryones-completewithcorrectgrammaticalmorphemes.AdvantagesofwugtestBycompletingthesesentences,childrendemonstratethattheyactuallyknowtherulesinEnglish,notjustalistofmemorizedwordpairs,andcanapplytheserulestowordswhichtheyhaveneverheardbefore.Somedisadvantages:TheacquisitionofthemorecomplexgrammaticalstructuresofthelanguagerequiresadifferentsortofexplanationWhatismetalinguisticawareness?Whyisitaprerequisiteforbeingabletounderstandmostjokesandriddles?Thinkofajokeorriddleyouknow.Howismetalinguisticawarenessrelatedtoyourunderstandingofwhatmakesthisjokefunny?Metalinguisticawarenessistheabilitytotreatlanguageasanobject,separatefromthemeaningitconveys.BecauseMetalinguisticawarenessincludesthediscoveryofsuchthingsasambiguitywordsandsentencesthathavemultiplemeaning.Jokes:Whyisthebridefeelingunhappyinherwedding?Becauseshecannotmarrythe‘bestman'.Whathaveresearchersobservedaboutthefrequencywithwhichyoungchildrenengageinimitationandrepetitivepractice?Inwhatwayareyoungchildren'slinguisticimitationandpracticepatternsdifferentfromthoseofsomeforeignlanguageclasses?Observation:•Firstyear,mostbabiescanunderstandquiteafewfrequentlyrepeatedwords.•Speechconsistsofimitation,butdifferentchildrenhavedifferentrateofimitation•Children'simitationsarenotrandom;theydonotimitateeverythingtheyhear•ChildrensometimesrepeatthemselvesorproduceaseriesofrelatedpracticesentencesDifferences:Linguisticimitationandpracticepatternsarethenaturalprocessinwhichchildrensubconsciouslypossessanddevelopthelinguisticknowledgeofthesettingtheylivein.Youngchildrenlearnlanguagethroughexposuretothelanguageandmeaningfulcommunication.Foreignlanguageclassestakeplacewherethetargetlanguageisnotthelanguagespokeninthelanguagecommunity.Childrenhavetheneedofsystematicstudiesofanykind.Giveexamplesofbothgrammaticalandlexicalovergeneralizationerrorsfoundinearlychildlanguage.Whatisthegenerallearningprinciplethatunderliessucherrors?Examplesofgrammaticalovergeneralizationerrors：Randall(2,9),whoisinstage3ofquestionformation,concludedthatthetrickofaskingquestionsistoputacertainword(inthiscase:are)atthebeginningofthesentence.forexample:AredogswiggletheirtailsCorrectform:Dodogswiggletheirtails?Examplesoflexicalovergeneralizationerrors:Michel(2,0)says:Mummy,I'mhiccingupandIcan'tstop.(Michelhasheardmanytwo-wordverbswithup,suchas"standingup"and"pickingup."Sohemakessuchageneralization.)Thegenerallearningprinciplethatunderliessucherrors:Childrenappeartopickoutpatternsandthengeneralizethemtonewcontexts.Theycreatenewformsornewusesofwordsuntiltheyfinallyfigureouthowtheformsareusedbyadults.Theirnewsentencesareusuallycomprehensibleandoftencorrect.Behaviorisminfirstlanguagelearning.HowdothestoriesofVictorandGenie(pages19-21)supportthecriticalperiodhypothesis?Doyoufindthisevidenceconvincing?WhydomostresearchersconsiderthattheevidencefromusersofAmericanSignLanguagethatwascollectedbyNewportandhercolleagues(page21)isstrongersupportfortheCPH?VictorandGeniearechildrenwhohavebeendeprivedofcontactwithlanguageintheirearlyyears.Theirlanguageacquisitiondevicewasstimulatedtoolate.Asaresult,eventhoughtheyweretaughttospeakwhentheywere12or13yearsoldtheyCANNOTlearnlanguagelikenormalpeopleandtheirlanguagedevelopmentwasabnormal.SothestoriesofVictorandGeniesupportthecriticalperiodhypothesis.Itisdifficulttoarguethatthehypothesisisconfirmedonthebasisofevidencefromsuchunusualchildrenandtheunknowncircumstancesoftheirearlylives.Wecannotknowwhatotherfactorsbesidesbiologicalmaturitymighthavecontributedtotheirinabilitytolearnlanguage.Therefore,thisevidenceisnotconvincingTheseusersofAmericanSignLanguageareusualchildrenwhoacquiretheirfirstlanguageatdifferentages.Theycomefromlovinghomes,yetdonotreceiveexposuretolanguageattheusualtime.Besides,thecircumstancesoftheirearlylivesareknowntotheresearchers.TheybeginlearningASLoftenwhentheystartattendingaresidentialschoolwheresignlanguageisusedforday-to-daycommunication.Moreover,inthestudy,therewerethreedistinctgroupsofASLusers:Nativesignerswhowereexposedtosignlanguagefrombirth,EarlylearnerswhosefirstexposuretoASLbeganatagesfourtosixatschool,andLatelearnerswhofirstcameintocontactwithASLaftertheageof12.ResultsoftheresearchshowedthattheNativegroupoutperformedtheEarlylearnergroupwhooutperformedthelatelearnergroupontestsfocusingongrammaticalmarkers.Thestudysupportsthehypothesisthatthereisacriticalperiodforfirstlanguagelearning.HowarePiaget'sandVygotsky'sviewsoffirstlanguageacquisitionsimilar?Howdotheydiffer?Similarities:Bothofthemthoughtthatinteractionplayedaveryimportantroleinlanguagedevelopment;Childrenareactivelearners;DevelopmentdeclineswithageDifferences:PiagethypothesizedChildren'scognitivedevelopmentwouldpartlydeterminehowtheyuselanguage!VygotskybelievedthatLanguagedevelopsentirelyfromsocialinteraction.WhatwasunusualaboutJim'sexposuretolanguage?Howdoesthiscasesupportaninteractionistperspectiveonlanguageacquisition?Unusual:(1)Jim,thehearingchildrenofdeafparents,hadlittlecontractwithhearing/speakingadultsuptotheageofthreeyearsandninemonths.(2)HisonlycontractwithorallanguagewasthroughTV.HisparentsdidnotusesignlanguagewithJimSupport:(1)Interactionismfocusontheroleofthelinguisticenvironmentininteractionwiththechild'sinnatecapacitiesindetermininglanguagedevelopment.AndVygotskythoughtwasessentiallyinternalizedspeech,andspeechemergedinsocialinteraction.(2)Jim'sonlycontractwithorallanguagewasthroughTV,whichcannotgiveimmediateadjustmentfortheneedsofJim.ButwhenJimbeganconversationswithsessionswithanadult,hisexpressiveabilitiesbegantoimprove.Bytheageoffouryearsandtwomonths,mostoftheunusualspeechpatternshaddisappeared,replacedbystructuresmoretypicalofJim'sage.StatetheContrastiveAnalysisHypothesis(CAH)andexplainwhyitisoftenlinkedtothebehaviouristtheory.Whatareitslimitations?(1)TheCAHwasputforwardbyDr.RobertLadoanditpredictsthatwheretherearesimilaritiesbetweenthefirstandsecondlanguage,thelearnerwillacquiresecondlanguagestructureswithease;wheretherearedifferences,thelearnerwillhavedifficulty(2)TheCAHisbasedonthebehaviouristicpsychology.Itholdsthatlanguagedevelopmentisviewedastheformationofhabits;itisassumedthatapersonlearningasecondlanguagestartsoffwiththehabitsformedinthefirstlanguageandthatthesehabitsinterferewiththenewonesneededforthesecondlanguage.Limitations:NotallerrorspredictedbyCAHareactuallymade.ManyoftheerrorswhichlearnersdomakearenotpredictableonthebasisoftheCAH.Onlyafewerrorsmadeduringthesecondlanguagelearningattributestotheinterferencesofthemothertongue.VI.Itonlyfocusesonmakingcomparisonsbetweenthemothertongueandthesecondlanguageintermsofphonologyandsyntax,ignoringthecomparisonsinsemantics,vocabulary,andpragmatics.V.Exceptfromthemothertongue,thenationalculturealsoinfluencesthesecondlanguagelearning.Whatcontributionhasbehaviourismmadetoourunderstandingofhowlanguagesarelearned?Whatisthetheorynotabletoexplain?(1).I.Behaviouristsaccountforlearningintermsofimitation,practice,reinforcement,(orfeedbackonsuccess),andhabitformation.II.Alllearningtakesplacethroughthesameunderlyingprocesses.Learnersreceivelinguisticinputfromspeakersintheirenvironmentandtheyform"association"betweenwordsandobjectsorevents.Learnersreceiveencouragementfortheircorrectimitationsandcorrectivefeedbackontheirerrors.Learnersstartoffwiththehabitsformedinthefirstlanguagewhilelearningasecondlanguageandthesehabitsinterferewiththenewonesneededforthesecondlanguage.(2).I.Wheretherearedifferencesbetweenthefirstlanguageandthetargetlanguage,thelearnerswillhavedifficulty.II.Notallerrorspredictedbyitareactuallymade.Manyoftheerrorswhichlearnersdomakearenotpredictableonthebasisofit.III.Manyofthesentencesproducedbysecondlanguagelearnerswouldbequiteungrammaticalintheirfirstlanguage.Somecharacteristicsofthesesimplestructuresareverysimilaracrosslearnersfromavarietyofbackgrounds.Thelearner'sfirstlanguagemaynotsimplybeamatterofthetransferofhabits.Sumup,inyourownwords,themainpointssurroundingthedebateaboutthenatureandavailabilityofUGinSLA.Wheredoyoustand?UGisnotsuitableforexplainingsecondlanguageacquisition.(1)UGissuitableforacquiringlanguageduringacriticalperiod;itisnotavailableforsecondlanguagelearnerswhohavepassedthecriticalperiod.(Evenifitmaybepresentandavailable,itsexactnaturehasbeenchanged.)(2)Formalinstructionanderrorcorrectionwillnotaffectthelearner'sknowledgeofsecondlanguage.InsteadofUG,manydifferenttheoriesmightbevitaltoexplainsomeearlylanguageperformance.UGissuitableforexplainingsecondlanguageacquisition.(1)Thereisstillalogicalproblemofsecondlanguageacquisition,whichalsoappearsinmotherlanguagelearning,eveniflearnersbeginlearningasecondlanguageafterthecriticalperiod.(2)Secondlanguagelearnersneedbothformalinstructionanderrorcorrectionortheywillbeaffectedbytheirfirstlanguage.(3)UGisnecessarytoexplainlearner'sknowledgeofcomplexsyntax.Mystand:Althoughitdoesn'tcoverallaspects,UGhasexactlyexplainedsecondlanguageacquisitiontosomeextent.(logicalproblem,errorcorrection,etc.)13.NamethefivehypothesesthatmakeupKrashen'sMonitorModel.Accordingtothismodel,whatconditionsmustbepresentfor‘acquisition'totakeplace?Whataretheconditionsforlanguage‘learning'?1.Theacquisition-learninghypothesis.2.Themonitorhypothesis.3.Thenaturalorderhypothesis.4.Theinputhypothesis.5.Theaffectivefilterhypothesis.Whatconditionsmustbepresentfor‘acquisition'totakeplace?Meaningfulinteractioninthetargetlanguage.Exposuretoadequateandcomprehensibleinput:"i+1".Whataretheconditionsforlanguage‘learning'?AccordingtoKrashen,fortheMonitortobesuccessfullyused,threeconditionsmustbemet:Thelearnermustmastertheknowledgeofrules.ThelearnermustbefocusedoncorrectnessThelearnermusthavesufficienttimetousethemonitorWhatarethelimitationsofKrashen'stheory?WhydoyouthinkthatKrashen'sideashavebeensoinfluentialinsecond-andforeign-languageeducation?Limitation1.Difficultiestodefine--Whetheracquisitionandlearningareinterchangeableisnotclear;--ThedefinitionofAcquisitionandLearningarenotclear.2.LackofempiricalevidenceIt'sdifficulttoshowtheevidenceofmonitoruse;wedon'tknowwhatisproducedbyacquiresystemormonitoruse;Thenaturalordercomesfrom“morphemestudies”,whichiscriticizedbyotherexperts;Inputhypothesishasnotbeensubstantiatedbyempiricalstudies;Itisdifficulttobesurethataffectivefactorscausethedifferencesinlanguageacquisition;WhyMonitorModelissoinfluential?Itappearstohaveimmediateimplicationsforclassroompractice;Itappealsintuitivelytothosewhohavetriedunsuccessfullytolearnalanguageinconditionswheretheyfeltstressedoruncomfortable;ThecognitiveperspectiveHowdoesinformation-processingmodelexplainSLA?Informationprocessingisthechangeofinformationinanymannerdetectablebyanobserver.Itisaprocesswhichdescribeseverythingwhichhappensintheuniverse,fromthefallingofarock(achangeinposition)totheprintingofatextfilefromadigitalcomputersystem.CognitivepsychologistsworkinginaninformationprocessingmodelofhumanlearningandperformancetendtoseeSLAasthebuildingupofknowledgesystemsthatcaneventuallybecalledonautomaticallyforspeakingandunderstanding.InformationprocessingmodelexplainSLAfrom3stages:1.Atfirst,thereisalimittotheamountofinformationahumancanpayattentiontoatonetime.Forexample,alearnerattheearlieststagesofsecondlanguagelearningwillprobablypayattentiontothemainwordsinamessageandnotbeabletonoticegrammaticalmorphemeswhichareattachedtosomeofthosewords.So,learnershavetopayattentiontoanyaspectsofthelanguagewhichtheyaretryingtospeakingandunderstanding.Gradually,throughexperienceandpractice,learnersbecomeabletousecertainpartsoftheirknowledgesoquicklyandautomaticallythattheyarenotevenawarethattheyaredoingit.Thisfreesthemtofocusonotheraspectsofthelanguagewhich,inturn,graduallybecomeautomatic(McLaughlin).3.Eventually,theperformancewillbecomeautomatic.Itmayoriginatefrominternationallearning,forexampleinformalstudy,butthisisnotalwaysthecase.Wecanuseourmental"processingspace",apossiblesourceforinformationorskillswhichcaneventuallybeavailableautomatically,iftherehasbeenenoughpractice(somethingwhichinvolveseffortonthepartofthelearner).InteractionistpositionInwhatwayareproponentsoftheinteractionistpositioninSLAinagreementwithKrashen'smonitormodel?Inwhatwaydotheygobeyondit?AccordanceInteractionistsagreethatcomprehensibleinputisnecessaryforlanguageacquisition.ExtensionMichaelLong:ismoreconcernwiththequestionofhowinputismadecomprehensible;viewsthatmodifiedinteraction(negotiationofmeaning)isveryimportantduringtheconversation.Modifiedinteractiontheory:interactionalmodificationmakesinputcomprehensible,whilecomprehensibleinputpromotesacquisitionsothatinteractionalmodificationpromoteslanguageacquisition.Vygotsky:socialculturaltheory——assumesthatallcognitivedevelopmentarisesasaresultofsocialinteractionsbetweenindividuals.Morefocusontheuseandsocialfunctionsoflanguage.Whatkindsofconversationalmodificationsdonativespeakersmakewhentheytalktonon-nativespeakers?Whatsimilaritiesanddifferenceswouldyouexpecttofindbetweenthesemodificationsandthosethatareobservedinchild-directedspeech?Why?Whatkindsofconversationalmodificationsdonativespeakersmakewhentheytalktonon-nativespeakers?InteractionalModifications:Comprehensionchecks:effortsbythenativespeakertoensurethatthelearnerhasunderstoodClarificationrequests:effortsbythelearnertogetthenativespeakertoclarifysomethingwhichhasnotbeenunderstood.TheserequestsfromthelearnerleadtofurthermodificationsbythenativespeakerSelf-repetitionorparaphrase:thenativespeakerrepeatshisorhersentenceeitherpartiallyoritsentiretyWhatsimilaritiesanddifferenceswouldyouexpecttofindbetweenthesemodificationsandthosethatareobservedinchild-directedspeech?Why?ThesimilaritiesTheway——conversationalinteractionTheybothinvolveaslowrateofdilivery,repetition,someclues,etc.ThedifferencesChild-directedspeech--difficulttojudgetheimportanceofthesemodifications--childrenstilllearnlanguagebytheirsiblingsthoughwithoutsuchmodificationfromparents--comprehensibleinputisthefocusThesemodificationsininteraction--howtheinputismadecomprehensibleismoreimportant--notthesimplificationbuttheopportunitytointeractwithothers--modificationismoreimportantthanthelinguisticsimplificationThereasonsDifferentobjects—oneforthefirstlanguagelearningandoneforthesecondlanguagelearningThedifficulties—it'shardertolearnthesecondlanguageSeveraltheoriesforL2learninghavebeenproposedinthischapter.Isoneofthemmoreconsistentwithyourownunderstandingofhowlanguagesarelearned?Ifso,howhaveyourexperiencesasalearnerbroughtyoutothisview?Theacquisition-learninghypothesisHecitesevidencesofsomefluentspeakerswithouthavinglearnedrules(likeilliteratepeople),whileothersmay'know'rulesbutfailtoapplytheminreallanguageuse(likesomeincompetent'high-score'learners).ManyChinesestudentsareafraidoftalkingwithEnglishnativespeakers,thoughtheygethighmarksinEnglish.Astheyonlyknowhowtochoosethecorrectanswerbutseldomusetheknowledgeinreallife,theywillstutterwhentheyspeakEnglish.Hence,Ithinkthatadequatepracticecanmakelearnedknowledgehabitualsothatitisavailableforspontaneoususeinrealcommunication.Inthiscase,thelearnedlanguagebecomestheacquiredknowledge.Otherwise,there'snosignificanceforschoollearning.ThemonitorhypothesisKrashenhasspecifiedthatlearnersusethemontioronlywhentheyarefocusedmoreonbeing'correct'thanonwhattheyhavetosay,whentheyhavesufficienttimetosearchtheirmemoryfortherelevantrules,andwhentheyactuallyknowtheserules.Wewillpaymoreattentionwhenwearewriting,liketakinganexam.However,whenwearespeaking,Ifindthatweseldomusethestructuresweuseinthewritingandwemakelotsofgrammaticalmistakes.TheinputhypothesisIftheinputcontainsformsandstructuresjustbeyondthelearner'scurrentlevelofcompetenceinthelanguage(whatKrashencalls'i+1'),thenbothcomprehensionandacquisitionwilloccur.Thinkabouttheexercisewedointhedailylife.Itisnotthatdifficultandwecanfinishmostofthem.Whenteachersfindwhereandwhywearewrong,weactuallylearnsomethingbutnotmuch,whichissoonlyunderstandable.Then,wecaneasilygraspthem.TheaffectivefilterhypothesisThe'affectivefilter'isanimaginarybarrierwhichpreventslearnersfromacquiringlanguagefromtheavailableinput.Whenwearetired,weseldomwanttoanything.Letaloneourstudy.ThenaturalorderhypothesisTheruleswhichareeasiesttostatearenotnecessarilythefirsttobeacquired.Theruleforaddingan-stothirdpersonsingularverbsinthepresenttenseiseasytostate,butevensomeadvancedlearnersfailtoapplyitinrapidconversation.Chapter3:FactorsaffectingsecondlanguagelearningWhyisitdifficulttoassesstheinfluencethatpersonalcharacteristicshaveonthedevelopmentofL2proficiency?Actually,manyofusbelievethatcertaincharacteristicscanleadtomoreorlesssuccessfullanguagelearning.Forexample,manyteachersthinkextrovertedlearnerswhointeractwithoutinhibitionintheirsecondlanguageandfindmanyopportunitiestopracticelanguageskillswillbethemostsuccessfullearners.AllofusherehavelearnedEnglishformanyyearsandwerealizethatsomecharacterscontributetosuccessfullanguagelearning.1.triestogetamessageacrossevenifspecificlanguageknowledgeislacking2.iswillingtomakemistakes3.practisesasoftenaspossible4.hasagoodself-imageandlotsofconfidence5.beginslearninginchildhood……IntelligenceLanguagelearners'performanceonIQtestsisrelatedtocertainaspectsofL2abilitybutnottoothers.Giveexamplestoexplainthisstatement.Examples:1.InastudywithFrenchimmersionstudentsinCanada,itwasfoundthat,whileintelligencewasrelatedtothedevelopmentofFrenchsecondlanguagereading,grammar,andvocabulary,itwasunrelatedtooralproductiveskills.2.Inourexperience,manystudentswhoseacademicperformancehasbeenweakhaveexperiencedconsiderablesuccessinsecondlanguagelearning.AndyWarhol,theleaderofPopArt,isadistinguishedartist.HisIQisonly86,buthewassuccessfulinthefilm,music,publishing,writing,andmanyotherfields.Conclusion:Intelligenceiscomplexandthatindividualshavemanykindsofabilitiesandstrengths,notallofwhicharemeasuredbytraditionalIQtest.AptitudeWhatlessonscanlanguageteacherslearnfromtheresearchonlanguageaptitudeandL2instructionbyWesche(1981)?assumptionIdeally,onecoulddeterminelearners'profilesofstrengthsandweaknessesandusethisinformationtoplacestudentsinappropriateteachingprograms.TheresearchbyWescheisanexampletoshowhowthiscouldbedone.FromtheresearchResearchersfindoutthatahighlevelofstudentandteachersatisfactionwhenstudentswerematchedwithcompatibleteachingenvironments.Inaddition,someevidenceindicatedthatmarchedstudentswereabletoattainsignificantlyhigherlevelsofachievementthanthosewhowereunmatched.ExtensionTeachersmayfindthatknowingtheaptitudeprofileoftheirstudentswillhelptheminselectingappropriateclassroomactivitiesforparticulargroupsofstudents.Or,iftheydonothavesuchinformation,theymaywishtoensurethattheirteachingactivitiesaresufficientlyvariedtoaccommodatelearnerswithdifferentaptitudeprofiles.LearningstylesBasedonwhatyoureadinthischapter,doyouthinkthatthereisanidealwaytoteach/learnalanguage?Forexample,asaforeignlanguagelearnerorteacher,whatareyourviewsaboutteachinggrammar?Doyouhaveanyspecificpreferencesforhowitshouldbetaughtorwhen?Doyouknowwhatyourstudents'preferencesmightbeforgrammarteachinganddoyouthinkitwouldbeusefultofindout?Basedonwhatyoureadinthischapter,doyouthinkthatthereisanidealwaytoteach/learnalanguage?Idon'tthinkthereisanidealwaytoteachorlearnalanguage. Inthischapter,wehavelookedatthewayinwhichintelligence,aptitude,personality,andmotivationalcharacteristics,learnerpreferences,andagehavebeenfoundtoinfluencesecondlanguagelearning.Thestudyofindividuallearnervariablesisnoteasy.Theresultsofresearcharenotentirelysatisfactory.Lackcleardefinitionsandmethodsformeasuringtheindividualcharacteristics.Learnervariablesinteractincomplexways.Asaforeignlanguagelearnerorteacher,whatareyourviewsaboutteachinggrammar？Doyouhaveanyspecificpreferencesforhowitshouldbetaughtorwhen?Learnerpreference:Learnershaveclearpreferencesforhowtheygoaboutlearningnewmaterial.Learningstyle:Anindividual'snatural,habitual,andpreferredwayofabsorbing,processing,andretainingnewinformationandskills.perceptuallearningstyles:visuallearners:learnsomethinguntiltheyhaveseenitaurallearners:needonlytohearsomethingonceortwicebeforetheyknowitkinaestheticlearners:addaphysicalactiontothelearningprocesscognitivelearningstyles:fieldindependentlearners:separatedetailsfromthegeneralbackgroundfielddependentlearners:seethingmoreholisticallyDoyouknowwhatyourstudents'preferencesmightbeforgrammarteachinganddoyouthinkitwouldbeusefultofindout?Whenlearnersexpressapreferenceforseeingsomethingwrittenorformemorizingmaterial,weshouldencouragethemtouseallmeansavailabletothemastheyworktolearnanotherlanguage.Inaclassroom,asensitiveteacher,whotakeslearners'individualpersonalitiesandlearningstylesintoaccount,cancreatealearningenvironmentinwhichvirtuallyalllearnerscanbesuccessfulinlearningasecondlanguage.PersonalityWhatcanwelearnfromresearchabouttherelationshipbetweenL2learningand•extroversion•inhibitionDifferentresearchabouttherelationshipbetweenL2learningandextroversionproducesdifferentresults.Somestudieshavefoundthatlearner'ssuccessinlanguagelearningisassociatedwithextroversionsuchasassertivenessandadventurousness,whileothershavefoundthatmanysuccessfullanguagelearnersdonotgethighscoresonmeasuresofextroversion.Ithasbeensuggestedthatinhibition