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真核基因表达的调控前言真核生物与原核生物基因表达调控的特点比较:

1.真核生物的基因数目比原核生物的多,而且多数基因组基因含有内含子以及功能不清的重复序列等;原核的染色质是裸露的DNA,而真核的染色质则是由DNA与组蛋白紧密结合形成为核小体;在原核细胞中,染色质的结构对基因的表达没有明显的调控作用,而在真核中,这种作用是明显的。

2.在原核基因转录的调控中,既有激活物的调控(正调控),也有阻遏物的调控(负调控),二者同等重要。在真核中虽然也有正调控成分和负调控成分,但迄今已知的主要是正调控。而且一个真核基因通常有多个调控序列,必须有多个激活物同时特异地结合上,才能启动基因的转录;

3.原核基因的转录和翻译通常偶联在一起,而真核基因的转录是在细胞核中进行,翻译在胞质中进行;4.生成的初级转录物需在核中进行转录后的加工和运输,所以,真核基因的表达有多种转录后的调控机制;

5.真核生物大都为多细胞生物,在个体发育过程中逐步分化形成各种组织和细胞类型。分化是不同基因表达的结果。不同类型的细胞,功能不同,基因表达的情况也不一样。某些基因仅特异地在某种细胞中表达,称为细胞特异性或组织特异性表达,因而具有调控这种特异性表达的机制。6.真核生物对外界环境条件变化的反应和原核生物十分不同。同一群原核生物细胞处在相同的环境条件中,对环境条件的变化会作出基本一致的反应;而真核生物常常只有少部分细胞基因的表达直接受到环境条件变化的影响和调控,其他大部分间接或不受影响。第一节染色体水平的调控一、染色体丢失某些生物,在个体发育的早期,体细胞的染色体部分丢失,而性细胞的染色体数目保持不变。例子:马蛔虫(Parascarisequoorum):2n=2;

动物极植物极小表瘿蚊(Mayetioledestructor):2n=40。极细胞区:2n=402n=8二、染色体扩增

染色体扩增的本质是细胞内特定基因拷贝数的专一性大量扩增。基因组序列的选择性扩增。以dhfr基因的扩增为例,说明基因组序列的选择性扩增机制。二氢喋啶FH2FH4CoF衍生物嘌呤或嘧啶(1)合成酶;(2)还原酶。(1)(2)四氢叶酸1.类型:

StablelinesandUnstablelinesInstablelines,theamplifiedgenesareretained,becausetheyresideonthechromosome,atthesiteusuallyoccupiedbythesingledhfrgene.Usuallytheotherchromosomeretainsitsnormalsinglecopyofdhfr.

Inunstablelines,theamplifiedgenesareatleastpartiallylostwhentheselectivepressureisreleased,becausetheamplifiedgenesexistasanextrachromosomalarray.Figure17.28Thedhfrgenecanbeamplifiedtogiveunstablecopiesthatareextra-chromosomal(doubleminutes)orstable(chromosomal).Extra-chromosomalcopiesariseatearlytimes.

Figure17.29Amplifiedcopiesofthedhfrgeneproduceahomogeneouslystainingregion(HSR)inthechromosome.CHO野生型CHOrFigure17.30Amplifiedextrachromosomaldhfrgenestaketheformofdouble-minutechromosomes,asseenintheformofthesmallwhitedots.PhotographkindlyprovidedbyRobertSchimke.

2.dhfr基因扩增的机理和特点

(1)机理:

非同源重组(2)特点:A.在用MTX加压筛选的初期,细胞大部分或全部是不稳定的;

B.

dhfr基因的单细胞拷贝数的变化范围为40~400,随着加压程度的提高,拷贝数逐渐增加,对MTX的耐受力也相应提高;

C.

dhfr基因的长度为31kb,但被扩增的DNA长度可达500~1000kb;

D.当MTX压力解除后,dhfr基因将逐渐减少;

E.当与dhfr基因相连的外源DNA导入细胞后,有整合到内源dhfr基因位点的趋势。3.dhfr加压系统的应用EPO(促红细胞生成素)的高效表达。pCMV/EPOCHOcellline/dhfr-StableHighExpressionMTXTransformationEPOExtraction三、染色体重排(一)酵母交配型的转变ThematingtypeofacellisdeterminedbythegeneticinformationpresentattheMATlocus.MATaalleleatthislocusaretypea;likewise,theMATαallelearetypeα.Cellsofoppositetypescanmate;cellsofthesametypecannot.Recognitionofcellsofoppositematingtypeisaccomplishedbythesecretionof

pheromones.αcellssecreteα-factor(13aminoacids);acellssecretea-factor(12aminoacids).

Acellofonematingtypecarriesasurfacereceptorforthepheromoneoftheoppositetype.Whenanacellandanαcellencounteroneanother,theirpheromonesactoneachothertoarrestthecellsintheG1phaseofthecellcyclefollowedbycellandnuclearfusiontoproduceana/αdiploidcell.Figure17.1Matingtypecontrolsseveralactivities.

1.不同交配型的特点Figure17.2TheyeastlifecycleproceedsthroughmatingofMATaandMATahaploidstogiveheterozygousdiploidsthatsporulatetogeneratehaploidspores.

2.不同交配型的接合过程Figure17.3Eitheraorafactor/receptorinteractiontriggerstheactivationofaGprotein,whosebgsubunitstransducethesignaltothenextstageinthepathway.

3.交配型的信号传递Figure17.4Thesamematingtyperesponseistriggeredbyinteractionofeitherpheromonewithitsreceptor.Thesignalistransmittedthroughaseriesofkinasestoatranscriptionfactor;theremaybebranchestosomeofthefinalfunctions.

Figure17.5Changesofmatingtypeoccurwhensilentcassettesreplaceactivecassettesofoppositegenotype;whentranspositionsoccurbetweencassettesofthesametype,thematingtyperemainsunaltered.

4.

交配型的转换80%~90%5%5%5.不同交配型转换的机制WWXXXYYYa/aZ1Z1Z1Z2Z2MATa/a

HMRaHMLa/aFigure17.6Silentcassetteshavethesamesequencesasthecorrespondingactivecassettes,exceptfortheabsenceoftheextremeflankingsequencesinHMRa.OnlytheYregionchangesbetweenaandatypes.

Figure17.7Indiploidsthea1anda2proteinscooperatetorepresshaploid-specificfunctions.Inahaploids,matingfunctionsareconstitutive.Inahaploids,thea2proteinrepressesamatingfunctions,whilea1inducesamatingfunctions.

Figure17.10Cassettesubstitutionisinitiatedbyadouble-strandbreakintherecipient(MAT)locus,andmayinvolvepairingoneithersideoftheYregionwiththedonor(HMRorHML)locus.

(二)抗体的多样性1.免疫球蛋白的产生、种类、结构Theimmuneresponseofvertebratesprovidesaprotectivesystemthatdistinguishesforeignproteinsfromtheproteinsoftheorganismitself.Foreignmaterial(orpartoftheforeignmaterial)isrecognizedascomprisinganantigen.Theimmunesystemprovidesastrikingandextensivecaseinwhichthecontentofthegenomechanges,whenrecombinationcreatesactivegenesinlymphocytes.

Bcells,Tcellsmatureinthethymus.EachclassoflymphocyteusestherearrangementofDNAasamechanismforproducingtheproteinsthatenableittoparticipateintheimmuneresponse.

Forpracticalpurposes,weusuallyreckonthatamammalhastheabilitytoproduce106-108differentantibodies.

B淋巴细胞的分化过程:骨髓干细胞前B淋巴细胞未成熟B淋巴细胞成熟B淋巴细胞外周B淋巴细胞抗体骨髓外周血Figure24.1Humoralimmunityisconferredbythebindingoffreeantibodiestoantigenstoformantigen-antibodycomplexesthatareremovedfromthebloodstreambymacrophagesorthatareattackeddirectlybythecomplementproteins.

Figure24.17Immunoglobulintypeandfunctionisdeterminedbytheheavychain.JisajoiningproteininIgM;allotherIgtypesexistastetramers.

Figure24.4Heavyandlightchainscombinetogenerateanimmuno-globulinwithseveraldiscretedomains.

Eachantibodyisanimmunoglobulintetramerconsistingoftwoidenticallightchains(L)andtwoidenticalheavychains(H).Ifanylightchaincanassociatewithanyheavychain,toproduce106~108potentialantibodiesrequires103104differentlightchainsand103104differentheavychains.不同Ig家族的V、D、J、C基因片段数VDJC人小鼠人小鼠人小鼠人小鼠Lλ<3002764>64Lκ<300~10005511H~300>1000~30124498家族Figure24.5ThelambdaCgenesegmentisprecededbyaJsegment,sothatV-Jrecombinationgeneratesafunctionallambdalight-chaingene.

2.轻链和重链基因的结构与重组Figure24.6ThekappaCgenesegmentisprecededbymultipleJsegmentsinthegermline.V-JjoiningmayrecognizeanyoneoftheJsegments,whichisthensplicedtotheCgenesegmentduringRNAprocessing.

Figure24.7Heavygenesareassembledbysequentialjoiningreactions.FirstaDsegmentisjoinedtoaJsegment;thenaVgenesegmentisjoinedtotheDsegment.

Figure24.8ThelambdafamilyconsistsofVgenesegmentslinkedtoasmallnumberofJ-Cgenesegments.

Figure24.9ThehumanandmousekappafamiliesconsistofVgenesegmentslinkedto5JsegmentsconnectedtoasingleCgenesegment.

3.抗体的多样性Figure24.10Asinglegeneclusterinmancontainsalltheinformationforheavy-chaingeneassembly.

4.重组机制★RAG(recombinationactivegene)基因在抗体基因的重组过程中发挥了重要作用。构成抗体多样性的因素:轻、重链基因多样性的物质基础:1)V基因的多样性;2)D基因片段的多样性;3)J基因片段的多样性;4)C基因的多样性。轻链V-J-C重组方式的多样性;重链V-D-J-C重组方式的多样性;轻链V-J和重链V-D连接处碱基的插入或缺失;轻链与重链的组合方式。5.抗体的表达与分泌Figure24.15AVgenepromoterisinactiveuntilrecombinationbringsitintotheproximityofanenhancerintheCgenesegment.TheenhancerisactiveonlyinBlymphocytes.第二节染色质水平的调控一、染色质的组成与结构Chromatin:AmixtureiscomposedofDNA、histonesandnonhistones.Euchromatin(lowerdensity)

Heterochromatin(higherdensity):无表达活性。Nucleosome:contains~200bpofDNA,organizedbyanoctamerofsmall,basicproteins---histonesintoabead-likestructure.Theyformaninteriorcore;theDNAliesonthesurfaceoftheparticle.Thenucleosomeprovidesthefirstleveloforganization,givingapackingratioof~6.Itscomponentsandstructurearewellcharacterized.染色体DNA

线状,无分支。不同生物的DNA长度相差很大。生物bpDNA长度(mm)

染色体数(对)大肠杆菌4.0×1061.41酵母(S.cerevisiae)1.4×1074.616果蝇(D.malanogaster)1.7×108564人3.9×10999023Packingratio(堆积比):theratioofthelengthofDNAtotheunitlengthofthefibercontainingit.

2.组蛋白(Histones):

H1,H2A,H2B,H3andH4

在进化过程中,不同生物之间,同种生物的不同发育时期均高度保守,尤其H2A,H2B,H3andH4。

小牛胸腺组蛋白

组蛋白氨基酸数分子量(kDa)精(%)赖(%)H121523.0129H2A12914.0911H2B12513.8616H313515.31310H410211.31411Unitevolutionaryperiod(单位进化周期):两个进化系趋异后氨基酸序列改变1%的时间间隔。H3:3亿年;H4:6亿年。3.

非组蛋白(Nonhistones)Thenonhistonesincludealltheproteinsofchromatinexceptthehistones.Theyaremorevariablebetweentissuesandspecies,andtheycompriseasmallerproportionofthemassthanthehistones.Theyalsocompriseamuchlargernumberofproteins,sothatanyindividualproteinispresentinamountsmuchsmallerthananyhistone.

Thefunctionsofnonhistoneproteinsincludecontrolofgeneexpressionandhigher-orderstructure.

RNApolymerasemaybeconsideredtobeaprominentnonhistone.TheHMG(high-mobilitygroup)proteinscompriseadiscreteandwell-definedsubclassofnonhistones(atleastsomeofwhicharetranscriptionfactors).4.核小体Figure19.1Chromatinspillingoutoflysednucleiconsistsofacompactlyorganizedseriesofparticles.Thebaris100nm.Figure19.2Individualnucleosomesarereleasedbydigestionofchromatinwithmicrococcalnuclease.Thebaris100nm.Figure19.7MicrococcalnucleasedigestschromatininnucleiintoamultimericseriesofDNAbandsthatcanbeseparatedbygelelectrophoresis.Figure19.3ThenucleosomeconsistsofapproximatelyequalmassesofDNAandhistones(includingH1).Thepredictedmassofthenucleosomeis262kD.

1)组成Figure19.4ThenucleosomemaybeacylinderwithDNAorganizedintotwoturnsaroundthesurface.

2)结构Figure19.6SequencesontheDNAthatlieondifferentturnsaroundthenucleosomemaybeclosetogether.

Figure19.10Microccocalnucleaseinitiallycleavesbetweennucleosomes.Mononucleosomestypicallyhave~200bpDNA.End-trimmingreducesthelengthofDNAfirstto~165bp,andthengeneratescoreparticleswith146bp.

Figure19.8EachmultimerofnucleosomescontainstheappropriatenumberofunitlengthsofDNA.Figure19.21Inasymmetricalmodelforthenucleosome,theH32-H42tetramerprovidesakernelfortheshape.OneH2A-H2Bdimercanbeseeninthetopview;theotherisunderneath.

3)组装Figure19.27Invitro,DNAcaneitherinteractdirectlywithanintact(crosslinked)histoneoctamerorcanassemblewiththeH32-H42tetramer,afterwhichtwoH2A-H2Bdimersareadded.

Figure19.22Thecrystalstructureofthehistonecoreoctamerisrepresentedinaspace-fillingmodelwiththeH32-H42tetramershowninwhiteandtheH2A-H2Bdimersshowninblue.H2A-H2BH32-H42Figure19.19The10nmfiber(left)tothe30nmfiberwhichhasacoiledstructure.

5.30nm纤丝的形成Figure19.20The30nmfibermayhaveahelicalcoilof6nucleosomesperturn,organizedradially.

6.辐射状环结构的形成Figure18.7Histone-depletedchromosomesconsistofaproteinscaffoldtowhichloopsofDNAareanchored.

Figure18.9Thesisterchromatidsofamitoticpaireachconsistofafiber(~30nmindiameter)compactlyfoldedintothechromosome.

(一)异染色质化(二)活泼转录区DNA对核酸酶的敏感性提高超敏感位点:仅在发生基因表达的细胞中才能发现有这种对核酸酶超敏感的位点,可见它与基因的转录有关。已发现,这些位点通常位于被转录基因的5ˊ端1000bp的侧翼内,但也有位于离5ˊ端更远一些、3ˊ端和甚至基因内部的。许多超敏感位点相当于已知的调控蛋白所结合的位点。

(三)正在转录的染色质处DNA的甲基化程度降低(四)正在转录区的组蛋白和有关蛋白质发生改变

活泼转录的染色质趋于缺乏组蛋白H1,而且其它的核心组蛋白则被乙酰基化或与泛素(ubiquitin)相结合而被修饰。

染色质的体外重组实验二、染色质的结构对基因表达的调控染色质体外重组实验:

用盐或稀酸处理染色质,可将DNA、组蛋白和非组蛋白分开,经离子交换层析、乙醇沉淀等技术处理可分别获得上述三种组分。来自不同细胞的染色质组分混合后,能够重新组建成染色质。

将无转录活性细胞的DNA和组蛋白与有转录活性细胞的非组蛋白混合,则产生转录活性。第三节转录和转录后加工的调控一、顺式作用元件与反式作用因子(一)顺式作用元件(Cis-actingsequences)启动子核心成分:如TATAbox;上游启动子成分:如CAATbox,GCbox、八聚体(octamer)以及ATF结合位点等;远上(下)游序列:如增强子,酵母的UAS(upstreamactivatorsequences),静息子等;特殊细胞中的启动子成分:淋巴细胞中的Oct和κB等。哺乳动物RNApolymerase启动子上游转录因子结合的序列元件组件保守序列DNA长度结合因子大小(kDa)丰度/细胞分布TATAboxTATAAA-10bpTBP27?普遍CAATboxGGCCAATCT-22bpCTF/NF160300000普遍GCboxGGGCGG-20bpSP116560000普遍OctamerATTTGCAT-20bpOct-176?普遍OctamerATTTGCAT23bpOct-252?淋巴细胞κBGGGACTTTCG-10bpNFκB44?淋巴细胞κBGGGACTTTCG-10bpH2.TH1??普遍ATFGTGACGT-20bpATF??普遍结合于反应性元件的特殊转录因子调节剂反应元件保守序列长度反应因子大小(kDa)热休克HSECNNGAANNTCCNNG27bpHSTF93糖皮质激素GRETGGTACAAATGTTCT20bp受体94佛波酯TRETGACTCA22bpAP139血清SRECCATATTAGG20bpSRF52

(二)反式作用因子(Trans-actingelement)通用反式作用因子:一般细胞中普遍存在,如TBP,SP1,CTF/NF-1,Oct-1等;特殊组织和细胞中的反式作用因子:Oct-2;与反应性元件结合的反式作用因子:见下表。反式作用因子的调控作用途径:1)蛋白质与DNA相互作用;2)蛋白质之间的相互作用;3)蛋白质与配基结合;4)蛋白质自身的修饰。Figure21.2Theactivityofaregulatorytranscriptionfactormaybecontrolledbysynthesisofprotein,covalentmodificationofprotein,ligandbinding,orbindingofinhibitorsthatsequestertheproteinoraffectitsabilitytobindtoDNA.

二、调控蛋白与DNA的结合方式调控蛋白通常是结合在特异的DNA序列上而发挥作用的。而且调控蛋白通常有独立的结合DNA的结构域。(一)螺旋-转角-螺旋(helix-turn-helix)(二)锌指(ZincFinger)(三)同源异型结构域(homeodomains,HD)Figure10.13ThestructureofamonomerofLacrepressoridentifiesseveralindependentdomains.(一)螺旋-转角-螺旋(helix-turn-helix

)Thehelix-turn-helixmotifwasoriginallyidentifiedastheDNA-bindingdomainofphagerepressors.Oneα-helixliesinthewidegrooveofDNA;theotherliesatanangleacrossDNA.Figure10.15InducerchangesthestructureofthecoresothattheheadpiecesofarepressordimerarenolongerinanorientationthatpermitsbindingtoDNA.Figure21.12Helix3ofthehomeodomainbindsinthemajorgrooveofDNA,withhelices1and2lyingoutsidethedoublehelix.Helix3contactsboththephosphatebackboneandspecificbases.TheN-terminalarmliesintheminorgroove,andmakesadditionalcontacts.

(二)锌指(ZincFinger)

ThezincfingermotifcomprisesaDNA-bindingdomain.ItwasoriginallyrecognizedinfactorTFIIIA,whichisrequiredforRNApolymeraseIIItotranscribe5SrRNAgenes.Ithassincebeenidentifiedinseveralothertranscriptionfactors(andpresumedtranscriptionfactors).AdistinctformofthemotifisfoundalsointhesteroidreceptorsThesteroidreceptorsaredefinedasagroupbyafunctionalrelationship:eachreceptorisactivatedbybindingaparticularsteroid.Theglucocorticoidreceptoristhemostfullyanalyzed.Togetherwithotherreceptors,suchasthethyroidhormonereceptorortheretinoicacidreceptor,thesteroidreceptorsaremembersofasuperfamilyoftranscriptionfactorswiththesamegeneralmodusoperandi.

Figure21.3TranscriptionfactorSP1hasaseriesofthreezincfingers,eachwithacharacteristicpatternofcysteineandhistidineresiduesthatconstitutethezinc-bindingsite.Figure21.4Zincfingersmayforma-helicesthatinsertintothemajorgroove,associatedwithb-sheetsontheotherside.

Figure21.5ThefirstfingerofasteroidreceptorcontrolsspecificityofDNA-binding(positionsshowninred);thesecondfingercontrolsspecificityofdimerization(positionsshowninblue).TheexpandedviewofthefirstfingershowsthatdiscriminationbetweenGREandEREtargetsequencesrestsontwoaminoacidsatthebase.

三、调节蛋白与蛋白质结合的方式在真核细胞中,许多转录因子以二聚体结合在DNA上。这些调控蛋白除了与DNA结合的结构外,还有与蛋白质结合的结构域。这些结构域参与二聚体的形成。由相同亚基组成的二聚体,称为同二聚体(homodimer);由不同亚基所组成的二聚体,称为异二聚体(heterodimer)。二聚体的形成是它与DNA结合的必要条件。和蛋白质与DNA结合的基元一样,媒介蛋白质-蛋白质相互作用的蛋白质结构基元可归属于几种类型。其中鉴定得比较清楚的有螺旋-环-螺旋和亮氨酸拉链两种。

(一)螺旋-环-螺旋(helix-loop-helix,HLH)

(二)亮氨酸拉链(Leucinezippers)(一)螺旋-环-螺旋(helix-loop-helix,HLH)Theamphipathichelix-loop-helix(HLH)motifhasbeenidentifiedinsomedevelopmentalregulatorsandingenescodingforeukaryoticDNA-bindingproteins.Eachamphipathichelixpresentsafaceofhydrophobicresiduesononesideandchargedresiduesontheotherside.Thelengthoftheconnectingloopvariesfrom12~28aminoacids.Themotifenablesproteinstodimerize,andabasicregionnearthismotifcontactsDNA.

Figure21.13AllHLHproteinshaveregionscorrespondingtohelix1andhelix2,separatedbyaloopof10-24residues.BasicHLHproteinshavearegionwithconservedpositivechargesimmediatelyadjacenttohelix1.

Figure21.14AnHLHdimerinwhichbothsubunitsareofthebHLHtypecanbindDNA,butadimerinwhichonesubunitlacksthebasicregioncannotbindDNA.

(二)亮氨酸拉链(Leucinezippers)Leucinezippersconsistofastretchofaminoacidswithaleucineresidueineveryseventhposition.Aleucinezipperinonepolypeptideinteractswithazipperinanotherpolypeptidetoformadimer.AdjacenttoeachzipperisastretchofpositivelychargedresiduesthatisinvolvedinbindingtoDNA.Figure21.15ThebasicregionsofthebZIPmotifareheldtogetherbythedimerizationattheadjacentzipperregionwhenthehydrophobicfacesoftwoleucinezippersinteractinparallelorientation.四、转录起始与转录后加工的调控

转录起始与转录后加工的调控主要包括以下几个方面的内容:

转录起始的选择;mRNA前体的可变剪接(alternativesplicing);RNA编辑(RNAediting);

mRNA的运输和稳定性的调控。(一)mRNA前体的剪接机制mRNA前体的加工包括5ˊ加帽、3ˊ加尾、剪接和编辑等。含有内含子的转录物中剪接区的碱基序列基因区域外显子内含子外显子卵清蛋白内含子2UAAGGUGAGC---------UUACAGGUUG卵清蛋白内含子3UCAGGUACAG---------AUUCAGUCUGβ‐珠蛋白内含子1GCAGGUUGGU---------CCUUAGGCUGβ‐珠蛋白内含子2CAGGGUGAGU―――CCACAGUCUC免疫蛋白λ内含子1UCAGGUCAGC―――UUGACGGGGCSV40病毒早期T-抗原UAAGGUAAAU―――UUUUAGAUUC1.真核生物基因内含子的结构特点Figure22.3Theendsofnuclearintronsaredefinedbythe

GT-AGrule.真核生物基因内含子的结构特点:1.内含子的大小:50~10000nt;2.5’-末端绝大多数为GU开始;3’-末端绝大多数为AG结束(GU-ATrule);3.在3’-末端的上游20~50nt处,有一段称为分支点(branchsite)的序列,在酵母中,此序列几乎都是UACUAAC,哺乳动物中有多种不同的序列;4.在5’-末端、3’-末端及分支点保持不变的情况下,可在内含子中插入或删除不同大小的外源基因片段,而且不影响基因的加工。Figure22.2RNAismodifiedinthenucleusbyadditionstothe5’and3’endsandbysplicingtoremovetheintrons.Thesplicingeventrequiresbreakageoftheexon-intronjunctionsandjoiningoftheendsoftheexons;MaturemRNAistransportedthroughnuclearporestothecytoplasm,whereitistranslated.

2.剪接体催化的剪接机制(1)剪接体的定义在细胞核和胞质溶胶中都含有多种不到300个核苷酸的小RNA分子,它们被称为核内小RNA(smallnuclearRNA,snRNA)和胞质内小RNA(smallcytoplasmicRNA,scRNA)。这些RNA分子和特异的蛋白质结合在一起形成复合体,这些复合体分别叫做核内小核糖核蛋白颗粒(smallnuclearribonucleoproteinparticles,snRNPs)和胞质内小核糖核蛋白颗粒(smallcytosolicribonucleopeinparticles,scRNPs)。研究者们也常常把它们叫做“snurps”和“scurps”。

剪接体(spliceosome)是一类大的复合体(60s),它们是由mRNA前体和snRNPs动态的聚集在一起而形成的。参与mRNA前体剪接的snRNPs

snRNPsnRNA大小(nt)作用U1165先后结合在5’、3’剪接位点上,U2185与分支位点结合,形成催化中心的一部分U5116结合在5’剪接位点上U4145遮蔽U6的催化活性U6106催化剪接Figure22.10Thesplicingreactionproceedsthroughdiscretestagesinwhichspliceosomeformationinvolvestheinteractionofcomponentsthatrecognizetheconsensussequences.

(2)剪接体的组装过程Figure22.14Spliceosomesareellipsoidalparticleswithseveraldiscreteregions.Thebaris50nm.

Figure22.6Splicingoccursintwostages,inwhichthe5’-exonisseparatedandthenisjoinedtothe3’-exon.

(3)剪接体催化的剪接过程Figure22.7NuclearsplicingoccursbytwotransesterificationreactionsinwhichafreeOHendattacksaphosphodiesterbond.Figure22.8U1snRNAhasabasepairedstructurethatcreatesseveraldomains.The5’-endremainssinglestrandedandcanbasepairwiththe5’-splicingsite.

Figure22.12U6-U4pairingisincompatiblewithU6-U2pairing.WhenU6joinsthespliceosomeitispairedwithU4.ReleaseofU4allowsaconformationalchangeinU6;onepartofthereleasedsequenceformsahairpin(darkgrey),andtheotherpart(black)pairswithU2.BecauseanadjacentregionofU2isalreadypairedwiththebranchsite,thisbringsU6intojuxtapositionwiththebranch.NotethatthesubstrateRNAisreversedfromtheusualorientationandisshown3’–5’(二)可变剪接1.可变剪接的方式现在已知许多基因有两个或更多个启动子,因而有两个或更多个转录起始位点。

(1)选用不同的启动子当用不同的启动子进行转录时,产生的初始转录物是不同的。如肌红蛋白基因。

(2)选用不同的加尾位点许多基因的初始转录物有多个加尾位点。选用不同的加尾位点可产生出不同的蛋白质。

(3)选用不同的剪接位点如SV40的T和t抗原是由同一基因用这种方式产生出来的两种蛋白质。

(4)上述二者兼有:如降钙素基因转录产物的剪接方式。Figure22.4Splicingjunctionsarerecognizedonlyinthecorrectpairwisecombinations.

Figure22.5NorthernblottingofnuclearRNAwithanovomucoidprobeidentifiesdiscreteprecursorstomRNA.Thecontentsofthemoreprominentbandsareindicated.Figure22.18Alternativeformsofsplicingmaygenerateavarietyofproteinproductsfromanindividualgene.Changingthesplicesitesmayintroduceterminationcodons(shownbyasterisks)orchangereadingframes

Figure22.20Alternativesplicingeventsthatinvolvebothsitesmaycauseexonstobeaddedorsubstituted.

2.mRNA前体可变剪接的概念和意义大多数真核基因转录产生的mRNA前体是按一种方式剪接产生出一种mRNA,因而只产生一种蛋白质。但有些基因产生的mRNA前体可按不同的方式剪接,产生出两种或更多种mRNA,即可变剪接(alternativesplicing)。为什么真核基因含有那么多内含子?迄今仍不甚明了。但可变剪接可以说明内含子的功能之一,即由于内含子的存在使得可变剪接成为可能。其意义在于可使一个基因表达出多种蛋白质,即扩大了DNA中遗传信息的含量。然而令人不解的是,高等真核生物的基因组是很大的,它完全能够容纳更多的基因,但不知为什么一方面它的许多基因非常分散,另一方面它又使一个基因产生出多种产物。(三)RNA编辑(RNAediting)

RNAeditingisaprocessinwhichinformationchangesatthelevelofmRN

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