联合国西亚经济社会委员会-阿拉伯区域的数字鸿沟和开放政府（英）-2021.10-35正式版

DigitaldivideandopengovernmentintheArabregionE/ESCWA/CL6.GCP/2021/WP.1DigitaldivideandopengovernmentintheArabregionUnitedNationsBeirutIntroduction231.CharacteristicsofthedigitaldivideA.ConceptofthedigitaldivideFFFFFFB.Levelsofthedigitaldivide12NormoreandLahera,2018.VanDijk,2020;Ragnedda,2017;Schreederandothers,2017.4Level1:PhysicalaccessFFF3VanDijk,2020.5F3FFLevel2:DigitalliteracyanduseFFFFFFFF5F4567ITU,2020b.VanDijk,2020;NormoreandLahera,2018.Büchiandothers,2015.Responsibleusereferstonotdistributingmisinformation,butalsolanguageandtonesusedwhencommunicatingasnottooffendotherusers.6FFFFFFTable1.IndividualsICTskilllevelsforArabcountries,2019(Percentage)AdvancedskillsBasicskillsStandardskillsArabcountriesAlgeriaaBahrainEgypt17.716.166.559.837.663.234.992.558.29.436.018.66.816.242.053.58.315.554.051.523.066.035.866.937.17.236.021.37.217.36.918.17.957.958.824.7...58.053.86.9Iraqa4.7KuwaitMoroccoOman38.422.525.524.949.334.331.536.321.118.523.722.252.125.849.231.913.49.349.184.544.38.0Qatar5.1SaudiArabia67.914.967.811.347.37.655.67.149.04.746.66.034.511.713.82.8StateofPalestineSudanbTunisia3.62.41.82.82.41.92.91.622.621.218.217.216.616.216.316.1UnitedArab90.890.076.070.056.039.736.017.9Emirates89Schreederandothers,2017.ITU,2020b.7••FF9FFFFLevel3:OutcomesandbenefitsFFFFFFFFF•10ITU,2020a.11VanDijk,2020;Ragnedda,2017.12Ibid.13Go-Gulf,2019.14ConsumersInternational,2019.8FFFFFFFFFC.COVID-19andthelevelsofthedigitaldivideFFFFFF15RadcliffeandAbuhmaid,2020.16Junio,2020.17Stelitanoandothers,2020.18Junio,2020.19Sargrad,2020.9FFFBox1.COVID-19andthedigitaldivideinLebanonTocurbthespreadofCOVID-19withinLebanonthegovernmentimplementedafulllockdownthatmadeitpossibleforpeopletoonlypurchasenecessitatesonline.Aftertheendingofthefulllockdown,thegovernmentstartedafourphasedstepbacktoreopensectorsandenablethemovementofpeople.Oneofthesectorsinthefirstphaseofthestep-backwheregrocerystoresandsupermarkets.Citizensthatwanttovisitsuchstoresneedtoabidebysafetyrules,butalsoprocurepermissionstogotothesestoresusingadigitalapplication.OncetheapplicationgrantspermissionthepersonreceivesaQRcodewhichisthenscannedatthestorebeforeapersoncanenterandleave.Despitedevelopmentstohelppeoplecontinuetheir“normal”

livesduringCOVID-19,manyfeltthatthemeasuresamplifiedthedigitaldivideamongthecitizenry.TousethemeasuresapersonmusthaveInternetaccess.In2017only78percentoftheindividualsinLebanonhadaccesstotheInternetandalthoughmobilecoverageofthepopulationwasat99percentin2019,thisdoesnotnecessarilyenabletheuseofonlineplatformsandmeasurescreated.Citizensthatarepoormaynothaveaccesstotechnologiesordigitalskillsnecessarytorequestpermissiontoaccessstores,leavingthemstrandedwithfewoptionstoobtainnecessaryarticles.ThesamewasexperiencedbyoldercitizensthatdidnotunderstandtheuseofQRcodes.ThelackofaccessandskillsinthetimeofCOVID-19negativelyimpactedontheabilityofpeoplewithinLebanontoreapthebenefits,butalsoplacedthemandothersatgreaterriskofinfectionthatwouldnegatemeasuretakenbythegovernmenttocurbthespreadinthefirstplace.20Brito,2020.102.DigitaldivideandtheadvancementofopengovernmentA.TransparencyFFFFFF21ESCWA,2018.22Ball,2009;Carolan,2016.11FFFFFFFFFFFFTable2.RighttoaccessinformationintheArabregionCountryJordanYear2007LegalinstrumentLawonSecuringAccesstoInformation(LSATI)MoroccoYemenSudan2011Article27oftheConstitution2012AccesstoInformationLaw2015AccesstoInformationLaw2016AccesstoInformationLawRighttoAccesstoInformationTunisiaLebanon2017LawFFF23ESCWA,2018.24DemocracyReportingInternational,2019.25Opendataimpliesalldatathatagovernmentholds,meaningthatalldataisopenbydefault.26Carolan,2016.27Chaouachiandothers,2020.12Box2.OpenBudgetTransparencyPortal,BrazilTheTransparencyPortalcreatedin2004bytheComptrollerGeneralisoneprojectthathasmostfulfilledthepromiseofgreatertransparencyandfightingcorruption.TheportalimprovesthetransparencyofGovernmentbypublishingopengovernmentbudgetdata.TheportalhasseengreatsuccessinincreasingtransparencyinBrazilandaidedinreducingovercostsinpublicspending.B.ParticipationTheaccessibilityandimpactoftheportalhashowevernegativelyaffectedbythedigitaldivideinBrazil,duetolowInternetpenetrationrates.ThegovernmenttriedtoresolvethisusingpublicinformationkiosksthatState-ownedbankswouldmanage.Unfortunately,thecostofthesekioskswasconsideredtoohighanditwasnotimplemented.InsteadtheComptrollerisworkingwithpartnerstoalleviatethedigitaldividenationwidewithdifferentprojects.FFF28ESCWA,2018.13Box3.CitizensConnect,NigeriaInNigeriatheneedarosetoprovideaplatformwherecitizenscanaccessinformationaboutgovernmentservicesasacommunicationgapexistsbetweencitizensandserviceproviders.Theresultisthatmostcitizensdonotknowwheretosendfeedbackorvoicegrievancesaboutpoorservicedeliveryorwhichgovernmentagenciescouldbeinformedaboutcriminalbehavioursuchasextortionandcorruption.Atthesametimethegovernmentisnotforthcominginprovidingreadyaccesstothisinformation.Theresultisfrustratedcitizensthatdonotbelievethegovernmenttakestheirconcernsseriously.“CitizensConnect”

isacivicplatformthataddresstheseissuesandraiseawarenessonissuesrelatedtopublicservicesusingtheInternetandsocialmedia.Thetoolnotonlygatherinformationbutcanvoicetheconcerntotherelevantgovernmentauthorityinhopeofaresolution.Oneoftheconsiderationsinthechoosingtheuseofweb-basedtechnologytolaunchthisplatformisthefactthatfiguresindicatedthatthereare92millionactiveInternetusersinNigeria.Thismeansthatover50percentofthepopulationmakeuseoftheInternetandwouldbeabletoaccessandeffectivelyusetheplatformtotheirbenefit.However,thecreatorswasconcernedaboutthepossibleexclusionofcitizensthatwouldresultinunequalaccesstotheserviceduetothefactthatsomepeoplestillhavelimitedknowledgeandskillsonhowtousetechnologywhilemanycommunitieshavepooraccess,meaningthatitcouldaffecttheeffectivenessofplatform.Theguardagainstthepotentialnegativeimpactofthedigitaldivide,thecreatorsof“CitizensConnect”developedstrategiestoreachouttonon-activeInternetusers.Theseincludetownhallmeetings,newspaper,andradioprogrammestocollatefeedbackfromcitizens.14C.CollaborationandengagementFFFBox4.Collaborativeconstitutionwriting,MexicoIn2018MexicoCitypublishedthecity’sfirsteverconstitution.Therighttoformulateaconstitutionforthecitywasgivenbythefederalgovernment,butcitizensbelievedthattheywouldnotbeabletoprovidefeedback,ideasorinputas60percentoftheofficialswerenotelectedtotheirpositions.Thelittletrustthatexistedinthegovernmentbeforetheannouncementofthecityconstitutiondiminishedfurtherafterwards.aThemayorofthecitywantedtheinputofthecitizensandlaunchedacampaigntocollecttheirideasandincludedasurveyandaworkgroup.Theyalsocreatedapetitionplatform,calledC.Citizenscouldlaunchapetitionfortheirideasandonesitreachedmorethan10,000votestheideawasrepresentedtomembersoftheworkgroupandifitreachedmorethan50,000votesitwaspresentedtomayorwhowoulddecideifitwouldbeincludedintheconstitution.Citizenscouldalsoformdiscussiongroupstotalkaboutspecificissues,suchasindigenousrights.Thefinalconstitutionhas14articlesbasedonthepetitionsandoutcomesofthemechanismsimplementedforcitizencollaboration.ThedraftwasacceptedbythenationalassemblyandwentintoeffectinSeptember2018.Internetuserpenetrationwasat58percentforMexicoin2018withmostusersbeingbetweentheageof25and34.bInthesameyeartheconnectivitypenetrationratewas67percent.MostpeopleownedasmartphoneandHowever,millionsofpeoplestilldonothaveaccesspreferredtoaccesstheInternetthroughmobiletechnology.ctotheInternetandveryfewhavethenecessaryskilltomakeeffectiveuseofthetechnology.PeopleincitieslikeMexicoCityisbetteroffwhere7outof10peoplehaveaccesstohigh-speedInternet.ThelackofaccessanduseamongpeopleinMexico,evenincitieslikeMexicoCitycouldhavehadanegativeimpactonthecollaborativeinitiativerolledoutbythemayor.However,intheplanningofthecampaignandtheonlinepetitionsthemayorandhispeopleconsideredthatpeoplewouldrequiredifferentmethodstovoicetheirideasandopinionsthatdidnotexclusivelyfocusondigital,thereforeamulti-tieredapproachwasfollowedthatallowedforbothdigitalparticipationandin-reallifeparticipation.Usingtheapproachedensuredthatallcitizens,regardlessofeconomic,social,culturalandpoliticalstatuswereincludedintheinitiative.29ESCWA,2018.15Box5.Socialmediaandactivism,ArabregionSocialmediahasbeenanessentialtoolforsocial,economicandpoliticalactivismintheArabregion.Manypeopleandorganizationsacrosstheregionhaveusedsocialmediaplatforms,suchasFacebookandTwitterasameansofbringingattentiontoissueswithincountriesandaskforsupportandactionfromthecommunity.Thiscoincideswiththeprinciplesoftransparency,participationandcollaborationandlevelthreeofthedigitaldivide.Duringthe2011uprisingsinBahrain,Egypt,Libya,TunisiaandSyriasocialmediawaswidelyusedtoinformthepublicaboutactionsaswellasavehicleforthevoiceofopinions.However,throughouttheregiongovernmentshavereacteddecisivelyagainsttheuseofplatformsforactivism.Duringthe2011uprisingsomegovernmentsorderedtheblockingofsocialmediasitesortheshut-downofInternetaccesscountry-wide.ThisalsohappenedinAlgeria(2019)whereInternetaccesswasblockedbecauseofdemonstrationsagainsttheinfluenceofarmy.Somecountriesusecybercrimelawandcounter-terrorismlawstopassharshsentencesforthosethatareinviolationbasedononlinepostingsonsocialmediaandtheweb.Arabgovernmentshavealsoblockedaccesstospecificwebsites,suchasthosethatpromotehumanrights.163.Towardsanassessmentsocioeconomicframeworkofopengovernmentandthedigitaldivide•••1718Table3.IndicatorssuggestedtomeasurethedigitaldivideintermsofinfrastructureandadoptionDigitaldivideinfrastructure/adoptionActivemobile-broadbandHouseholdswithsubscriptionsInternetper100inhabitants(%)accessathomeInternetusers(%)CountryAlgeriaBahrainEgypt(%)96.0122.659.374.499.759.973.137.4100.084.414.380.894.593.649.099.757.375.066.899.578.220.874.492.499.7Iraq42.1JordanKuwaitLebanonMauritaniaMoroccoOman77.0131.842.855.564.9109.1124.8QatarSaudiArabia116.999.295.7StateofPalestine19.337.979.633.670.630.9SudanSyrianArabRepublic11.577.8239.96.045.051.599.16.334.366.799.126.7TunisiaUnitedArabEmiratesYemen19Table4.IndicatorstomonitorsocioeconomicdividesSocioeconomicdividesCountryAlgeriaBahrainEgypt6.62.54.63.43.92.84.53.27.32.41.53.4..0.6340.6290.6290.5300.6230.6500.5990.6140.6050.6020.6290.5995.5..37.8..16.166.559.837.6..15.554.051.523.0..2.41.92.02.7..27.818.914.4..69.944.355.7..IraqJordanKuwait63.2..66LebanonMauritaniaMoroccoOman..27.431.04.8......1.05.11.50.21.914.7......34.992.558.267.835.866.937.149..Qatar....SaudiArabia....StateofPalestine1.23.22.93.68.64.72.04.81.51.2....29.246.5..62.231.5..11.32.4..4.72.4..Sudan..SyrianArabRepublic0.5670.6440.6550.494Tunisia15.2..48.7..21.290.0..16.656.0..UnitedArabEmiratesYemen2.248.629.520Table5.IndicatorstomonitortheopengovernmentenvironmentCollaborationGovernmentalreadinessTransparencyParticipationCountryAlgeriaBahrainEgypt0045.5260.1356.8255.3742.0834.3..1914..-1.0380.5170.8210.5530.4360.5310.7910.4960.2820.5730.7750.71745553434344-0.5160.299-0.424-1.3360.0990.018-0.833-0.498-0.1190.2590.7050.277-1.413-1.429-0.945-0.665-0.635-0.494-0.780-0.627-1.136-1.2910.7880.5710.3350.3590.8410.4180.1000.5240.8530.6590Iraq0JordanKuwaitLebanonMauritaniaMoroccoOman56013..70033.1932.5442.8843.4242.516..73017..Qatar019SaudiArabia062.1419-1.6170.79950.3060.688StateofPalestine055.4555.33....-1.008-1.636..54-0.744-1.6220.2940.306Sudan640.315SyrianArabRepublic072.5729.4542.6958.25..32260-1.9800.2810.4760.6530.8560.3055355-1.711-0.1021.3770.5410.6240.9000.324Tunisia1200UnitedArabEmirates-1.122-1.766Yemen103-2.279214.Conclusionandrecommendations2223Annex.ListofindicatorsandsourcesIndicatorSource12Activemobile-broadbandsubscriptionsper100inhabitants(%)ITUWorldTelecommunication/ICTIndicators(WTI)Database(2020).24hEdition.DecemberProportionofhouseholdswithInternetaccessathome(%)ITUWorldTelecommunication/ICTIndicators(WTI)Database(2020).24hEdition.December345Internetusers(%)ITUWorldTelecommunication/ICTIndicators(WTI)Database(2020).24hEdition.DecemberPopulationaged65andabove(%)WorldDevelopmentIndicators(WGI)Dataset(2020).Availableat/source/world-development-indicatorsDisabilityprevalencerates(%)ESCWA(2018)DisabilityintheArabregion.Availableat/sites//files/publications/files/disability-arab-region-2018-english_1.pdf67GenderGapIndex2020(WEF)WorldEconomicForum(2019).GlobalGenderGapReport2020:GlobalGenderGapIndex:DataExplorer.Availableat/global-gender-gap-report-2020/dataexplorer/ProportionofUNSTATS(2021).SDGGlobalDatabase.Availableatpopulationlivingbelowthenationalpovertyline(%)/sdgs/indicators/database/89EducationSchoolCompletionrate(uppersecondary)(%)UNESCOInstituteforStatistics(2020).Availableat/en/BasicSkill(Sendingemailswithattachedfiles)(%)ITUWorldTelecommunication/ICTIndicators(WTI)Database(2020).24hEdition.December24Indicator10StandardSkillSourceITUWorldTelecommunication/ICTIndicators(WTI)Database(2020).24h(Finding,downloading,Edition.Decemberinstallingandsettingsoftware)(%)11RighttoInformationRating(RTI)(Highest150,Lowest0)CentreforLawandDemocracy(n.d).GlobalRighttoInformationRating.Availableat/12PressFreedomIndexReportersWithoutBorders(2020).WorldPressFreedomIndex.Availableat(highest0lowest100)/en13OpenDataBarometerWorldWideWebFoundations(2019).TheOpenDataBarometer.Availableat(highest100lowest0)/?_year=2017&indicator=ODB14WGIVoiceandAccountabilityIndexWorldBank(2020).WorldGovernanceIndicators.Availableat/reports.aspx?source=worldwide-governance-indicators(highest2.5,lowest-2.5)15E-ParticipationIndexDESA.DivisionforPublicInstitutionsandDigitalGovernment(2020).E-ParticipationIndex.Availableat/egovkb/en-us/Data-Center16CIVICUSMonitor:TrackingCivicSpace(Open1-Repressed5)CIVICUS(2020).Monitor.Availableat/17WGIEffectivenessIndex(highest2.5,lowest-2.5)WorldBank(2020).WorldGovernanceIndicators.Availableat/reports.aspx?source=worldwide-governance-indicators18E-governmentservices(OSI)DESA.DivisionforPublicInstitutionsandDigitalGovernment(2020).E-GovernmentDevelopmentIndex.Availableat/egovkb/en-us/Data-Center25BibliographyAlmadhoun,S.(n.d.).AccesstoInformationintheMiddleEastandNorthAfricaRegion:AnoverviewofrecentdevelopmentsinJordan,Lebanon,MoroccoandTunisia.Availableat/files/content/activity/2012_RDAAIMNA_ATIMNARegion_EN.pdf.Ball,C(2009).WhatIsTransparency?PublicIntegrity,vol.11,Iss.4,pp.293-308.Availableat/doi/abs/10.2753/PIN1099-9922110400?journalCode=mpin20.Brito,C.(2020).COVID-19hasintensifiedthedigitaldivide.worldEconomicForum.24September.Availableat/agenda/2020/09/covid-19-has-intensified-the-digital-divide/.Büchi,M.andothers(2015).Modelingthesecond-leveldigitaldivide:Afive-countrystudyofsocialdifferencesinInternetuse.NewMediaandSociety,vol.18,No.11,2703-2722.Availableat/doi/10.1177/1461444815604154.Carolan,L.(2016).Opendata,transparencyandaccountability:Topicguide.Birmingham,UK:GSDRC,UniversityofBirmingham.Availableat/topic-guides/open-data-transparency-and-accountability/.Chaouachi,M.andothers(2020).Tunisia’sfirsteveropendatahackathontapsintodigitalization’spotentialforgreaterdevelopmentimpact.11December.Availableat/governance/tunisias-first-ever-open-data-hackathon-taps-digitalizations-potential-greater.Chatwin,M.andArku,G.(2017).BeyondAmbigui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