写作与修辞contrast and comparison的用法与比较-2

会计学1写作与修辞contrast

and

comparison的用法与比较

Comparison

and

contrast

are

two

thinking

processes

we

constantly

performour

daily

life.

We

might

compare

and

contrast

two

cities,

two

products,

twobooks,

two

plays

or

films,

etc.

although

comparison

usually

indentifiessimilarities

and

contrast

points

out

differences,

the

two

are

structusimilar

and

can

be

discussed

together.

The

purpose

of

comparing

or

contrasis

to

understand

either

of

the

two

things

more

clearly

and,

at

times,

to

makjudgments

about

them.第1页/共57页Subject-by-subject

Pattern

1.

stress

is

caused

by

daily

having

tocontend

with

crowds

of

people

andrestricted

space.

2.Travel

in

rush

hour

can

be

a

realheadache.industrialization.

4.

Cars

spew

toxic

fumes

into

theatmosphere.5.

Noise

bellows

out

from

every

side.1.

Here

the

pace

of

life

is

gentle.

2.

There

is

time

to

reflect

on

the

beauty

ofthe

world.3.

In

a

village,life

is

closer

to

nature.Thechanging

seasons

can

be

clearly

observed.3.

Pollution

of

various

kinds

is

the

resul■t

of4.

Ther

is

ample

space

for

everyone,

andfresh

air

to

breathe.第2页/共57页Subject-by-subject

Pattern

For

Americans

‘a

long

time’

may

be

anything

fromforty

years

to

forty

minutes,

depending

on

thecircumstances.

To

an

American

businessman

aproposal

that

could

be

completed

within

forty

yearsmight

be

‘too

far

into

the

future’

to

be

considered.

Amotorist

who

gets

involved

in

a

traffic

accidentwould

be

in

great

trouble

with

the

police

if

he

waitedtwenty-four

hours

to

report

the

accident.

An

hourwould

be

too

long

a

time

to

be

late

for

a

businessappointment

or

a

date.

Americans

are

so

time-conscious

that

promptness

is

not

only

a

virtue;

it

isan

obligation.第3页/共57页Subject-by-subject

Pattern

But

many

other

cultures

have

no

such

concept

of

‘a

long

time’.

DuringW

W

II,

a

local

truck

driver

arrived

breathlessly

at

military

governmentheadquarters

report

that

a

murderer

was

running

loose

in

his

village.Under

question

he

told

them

the

murder

had

occurred

seventeen

yearsearlier

and

that

the

murderer

had

remained

unmolested

in

the

village

allthe

time.

In

a

South

American

city,

an

American

was

asked

to

presentimmediately

his

credentials

to

a

local

official

and

was

kept

waitingoutside

his

office

for

almost

two

hours.

For

such

people,

promptness

isnot

only

unreasonable

but

also

irritating.

They

often

wonder

whyAmericans

make

such

a

fuss

about

it.

To

a

South

Asian

person,

a

longtime

may

be

1,000years,

or

even

forever.第4页/共57页A.

Americans’

concept

of

“a

longtime”:.Examples:(1)(2)(3)Attitudes

to

promptness:

第5页/共57页

Summary

In

subject-by-subject

pattern,

we

discusstwo

subjects

separately,

that

is

to

say,

we

dall

of

the

characteristics

of

subdivisions

ofirst

subject

in

the

first

half

and

then

presthe

characteristics

of

the

other

in

the

seconThe

aspects

examined

in

the

two

subjectsshould

be

the

same

and

in

both

parts,

we

shoulfollow

the

same

logical

order

for

each

subjec第6页/共57页Point-by-point

Pattern

Life

in

the

city

is

quite

different

fromlife

in

the

suburbs.

People

living

inthe

city

are

constantly

exposed

to

thehustle

and

bustle

of

urban

life.However,

life

in

the

suburbs

isgenerally

quiet

and

casual

than

that

inthe

city.

If

city

dwellers

want

to

seetrees

and

grass,

they

have

to

go

toone

of

the

public

parks.

On

the

otherhand,the

stre第e7页t/共s57页of

many

suburbancommunities

are

lined

with

trees

andeach

house

has

its

own

grassy

yard.ASummary

In

point-by-point

pattern,

the

writer

compares

and

contrasts

both

subjeitem

after

item.

He

structures

his

paragraph

around

points

of

comparisoninstead

of

subjects,

moving

back

and

forth

between

the

subjects.

The

speciof

both

subjects

are

placed

close

together

for

direct

and

immediate

comparand

contrast,

and

transitions

are

often

used

so

as

to

avoid

abrupt

switchinbetween

the

two

subjects.

The

point-by-point

pattern

works

best

with

subjects

that

contain

a

lot

ofIt

can

bring

into

sharp

focus

the

similarities

and

differences

for

the

readas

he

reads

along.第8页/共57页

A

brief

consideration

of

Egyptian

mythology

and

the

mythology

of

the

Greekis

enough

to

convince

us

of

the

revolution

in

thought

that

must

have

takenplace

from

one

age

to

the

other.

The

Egyptian

gods

had

no

resemblance

toanything

in

the

real

world;

the

Greek

gods

were

fashioned

after

real

Greekpeople.

The

Egyptian

artists’

interpretations

of

the

divine

were

horrid

bshapes

that

combined

men’s

heads

with

bird’s

bodies

or

terrifying

nightmThe

monstrosities

of

an

invisible

world

were

what

the

Egyptians

worshiped.The

Greek

interpretation

of

divinity

is

not

so

dark

a

picture.第9页/共57页

The

Greeks

were

preoccupied

with

the

visibleworld.

They

found

their

desires

satisfied

inthey

could

actually

see

around

them.

The

ancistatues

of

Apollo,

for

instance,

resemble

thstrong

young

bodies

of

athletes

contending

ithe

Olympic

Games.

Generally

the

Greek

artisfound

their

gods

in

idealized

beauty

orintelligence

of

actual

human

counterparts.

Thad

no

wish

to

create

some

hideous

fantasy

ththey

called

god.第10页/共57页Linking

devices

A

brief

consideration

of

Egyptianmythology

and

the

mythology

of

theGreeks

is

enough

to

convince

us

of

therevolution

in

thought

that

must

have

takenplace

from

one

age

to

the

other.

TheEgyptian

gods

had

no

resemblance

toanything

in

the

real

world;

the

Greek

godswere

fashioned

after

real

Greek

people.

A

brief

consideration

of

Egyptianmythology

contrasted

with

the

mythologyof

the

Greeks

is

enough

to

convince

us

ofthe

revolution

in

thought

that

must

havetaken

place

from

one

age

to

the

other.

TheEgyptian

gods

had

no

resemblance

toanything

in

the

real

world,

whereas

theGreek

gods

were

fashioned

after

realGreek

people.第11页/共57页Linking

devicesdivine

were

horrid

bestial

shapes

thatcombined

men’s

heads

with

bird’s

bodiesof

an

invisible

world

were

what

theEgyptians

worshiped.

The

Greekinterpretation

of

divinity

is

not

so

dark

apicture.The

Egyptian

artists’

interpretations

of■theThe

Egyptian

artists’

interpretations

of

tdivine

were

horrid

bestial

shapes

thatcombined

men’s

heads

with

bird’s

bodiesor

terrifying

nightmares.

The

monstrosities

or

terrifying

nightmares.

The

monstrositieof

an

invisible

world

were

what

theEgyptians

worshiped.

The

Greekinterpretation

of

divinity

stands

inopposition

to

this

dark

picture.第12页/共57页Linking

devices

The

Greeks

were

preoccupied

with

thevisible

world.

They

found

their

desiressatisfied

in

what

they

could

actually

seearound

them.

The

ancient

statues

ofApollo,

for

instance,

resemble

the

strongyoung

bodies

of

athletes

contending

in

theOlympic

Games.

The

Greeks

were

preoccupied

with

thevisible

world.

Unlike

the

Egyptians,They

found

their

desires

satisfied

in

whatthey

could

actually

see

around

them.

Theancient

statues

of

Apollo,

for

instance,resemble

the

strong

young

bodies

ofathletes

contending

in

the

Olympic

Games.第13页/共57页Linking

devices

Generally

the

Greek

artists

foundtheir

gods

in

idealized

beauty

orintelligence

of

actual

humancounterparts.

They

had

no

wish

tocreate

some

hideous

fantasy

thatthey

called

god.

Generally

the

Greek

artists

foundtheir

gods

in

idealized

beauty

orintelligence

of

actual

humancounterparts.

In

direct

contrast

tthe

Egyptians,

They

had

no

wishto

create

some

hideous

fantasy

thatthey

called

god.第14页/共57页Summary

Linking

words

and

phrases

can

indicate

contrand

clarify

the

shift

from

one

side

to

the

othThey

play

an

important

role

in

ensuring

asmooth

and

coherent

flow

from

one

subject

toanother,

or

from

one

point

to

another

inparagraphs.第15页/共57页Development

by

Cause

andEffect第16页/共57页At

the

end

of

the

unit

you

will:

Be

able

to

recognize

characteristics

andorganizational

patterns

of

cause

and

effectparagraph

writing;

Be

acquainted

with

relevant

linking

devicescause

and

effect

writing;

and

Be

able

to

write

effective

paragraphs

of

cauand

effect

according

to

the

instructions

giv第17页/共57页

“Cause

and

effect"

is

regarded

as

a

logicalpattern

commonly

used

in

explanation

andargumentation,

especially

when

we

explorepossible

connections

between

an

action/evenand

its

outcome,

or

between

causes

and

resultof

an

event,

action.第18页/共57页Sample

1

One

of

the

main

complaints

of

cityresidents

in

the

US

is

the

lack

ofparking.This

problem

is

partlycaused

by

all

the

abandoned

cars

onthe

streets.It

has

been

estimatedthat

over

one

million

cars

areabandoned

on

the

streets

of

thecities.Each

year,approximately

athird

of

thos第1e9页/c共5a7页rs

are

removed

anddestroyed.The

rest

of

the

cars

even

though

the

city

government

ofLos

Angeles

spends

about

30

milliondollars

to

tow

away

and

dismantleabandoned

vehicles,

it

is

always

fightinga

losing

battle

as

more

and

more

carsare

constantly

coming

off

the

producingline.

In

Boston,

on

the

other

hand,

theproblem

has

been

dealt

with

by

a

non-profit

governmental

agency,

which

usesthe

money

from

the

recycling

of

the第20页/共57页mental

in

the

cars

to

pay

for

the

cost

oftowing

them.

The

program

in

BostonQuestions1.

What

is

the

topic

of

the

paragraph?

2.

What

are

the

organizational

characteristthe

paragraph?3.

In

what

kind

of

order

are

the

causes

prese第21页/共57页

This

paragraph

is

developedaround

the

problem

of

“the

lack

ofparking”

complained

about

by

UScity

residents.

The

paragraph

is

organised

on

apattern

of

single

effect

and

multiplecauses.

After

the

problem

is

clearlypresented

at

the

beginning,

the

restof

the

paragraph

is

devoted

to

theexploration

of

its

causes.Altogether

three

major

causes

arediscussed,

from

the

obvious

fact

ofthe

abandoned

cars

taking

up第22页/共57页CausesEffect

Over

a

million

cars

are

abandoned

on

thestreets.More

cars

are

constantly

being

produced.

■

Both

city

governments

or

governmentalagencies

have

financial

headaches.Lack

of

parking

in

cities第23页/共57页Summary

The

sample

paragraph

presents

the

problem

oflack

of

parking

in

some

of

the

US

cities

beforgoes

on

to

explore

the

causes

of

the

issue.

Thpattern

of

organization

is

single

effect

vs.multiple

causes.

In

this

pattern,

you

may

stathe

issue,

i.e.

the

effect,

right

at

the

begiand

then

guide

the

reader

to

track

down

someimportant

evidence

for

the

causes.

The

causecan

be

traced

from

the

most

the

most

superficto

the

deepest,第24页/共57页

From

the

most

direct

to

the

most

indirect,

etIn

the

end,

it

is

advisable

to

suggest

somesolution

to

the

problem,

so

that

the

wholewriting

has

some

significance.第25页/共57页Sample

2

Since

the

terrorists

struck

the

WorldTrade

Center

and

the

Pentagon,

theAmericans

have

been

wondering

howto

respond

to

the

frequent

officialwarning

that

terrorists

are

planningnew

attacks

in

the

near

future.Theyfeel

anxious

and

panicky

because

theycan’t

calculate

the

odds

includingthose

of

explo第2s6页i/共v57页es

or

letters

withanthrax.But

it

is

critical

that

the

There

is,

of

course,

the

danger

that

too

manywarnings

could

become

mere

background

noise,and

that

somewhere

down

the

road

the

publicwould

wind

up

ignoring

the

one

that

reallymatters.

The

public

cannot

judge

on

a

day-to-day

basis

whether

those

assessments

are

beinmade

correctly.

But

the

nation

is

better

offfrightened

and

informed

than

left

happily

indark.第27页/共57页Questions

What

problem

is

addressed

in

this

paragraph?And

in

how

manyaspects

is

the

cause

or

effectexplored?

Does

thisparagraph

comestraight

to

the

poiof

cause

or

effect

about

the

issue?

Does

it

follow

the

same

pattern

as

Sample

1?not,

what

are

the

differences?第28页/共57页

1.

The

problem

addressed

refers

tothe

issue

of

terrorist

attacks.

Thisissue

has

brought

about

at

least

threemajor

aspects

of

consequence

oreffect.

The

paragraph

addresses

the

causerather

than

effects

right

at

thebeginning.

No.it

follows

a

pattern

of

singlecause

and

mult第i29p页/l共5e7页effects.UnlikeSample

1

in

which

effect

is

addressedfirst

and

causes

are

traced

backwards,Effect

1Effects2Effects3第30页/共57页Summary

You

may

have

noticed

the

difference

inorganization

between

Sample

1

and

Sample

2.

ISample

2

the

writer

briefly

presents

the

issuterrorist

attacks

as

a

direct

cause,

and

thendwells

upon

three

major

effects,

from

thematter-of-fact

to

something

predicted.

Thiscalled

the

single-cause-and-multiple-effecpattern.

As

is

observed,

the

writer

structurparagraph

mainly

around

points

of

effectsinstead

of

causes,第31页/共57页Summary

Reasoning

along

thelogical

sequence

of

evenLike

Sample

1,

transitions

are

also

used

so

aavoid

abrupt

idea

development.

The

single-cause-and-multiple-effect

patteworks

best

with

issue

that

turn

out

to

be

far-reaching

or

influential.

It

can

bring

into

shfocus

the

relationship

between

causes

andeffects

of

an

issue

under

discussion.第32页/共57页第33页/共57页Development

by

classification

In

life,

we

always

find

examples

of

classifiand

division.

Food,

drinks,

clothes,

animalsplants,

people,

teachers,

books,

etc.

Can

alclassified

in

various

ways

for

ease

ofunderstanding.

In

this

unit,

we

are

going

tostudy

the

features

and

organization

patternsclassification

and

the

use

of

relevant

linkidevices.第34页/共57页Sample

1

The

time

most

students

spendstudying

for

a

test

can

be

dividedinto

three

distinct

phases.

PhaseOne,

often

called

the

“No

problem”phase,

runs

from

the

day

the

test

isannounced

to

approximately

forty-eight

hours

before

the

dreadedexam

is

passed

out.

During

PhaseOne,the

stu第d35e页n/共t57页is

carefree,smiling

and

enjoying

life

as

usual.When

asked

by

classmates

if

he

has

Phase

Two

is

entered

two

days

prior

tothe

test.It

is

sometimes

referred

to

as

t“Tomorrow”phase,since

students

oftenreply

to

questions

with

the

statement,“I’ll

study

tomorrow.”During

PhaseTwo,again,no

actual

studying

takesplace,but

he

is

considering

it.PhaseThree,the

final

phase,is

entered

twelvehours

before“Zero

Hour.”This

is

theactual

phase,characterized

by

sweatypalms,nervous

twitches(抽筋),andconfused

menta第l36页p/共a57t页tern.Phase

Three

isalso

termed

the“Shock”phase

since

thestudents

is

shocked

to

discover

theComplete

the

outline

according

to

the

organization

ofSample

1Subject:the

time

most

students

spend

studying

for

a

testTopic

sentence:

The

time

most

students

spend

studying

for

a

test

can

be

divided

into

threedistinct

phases.Division

1)

Phase

One

runs

from

the

day

the

test

is

announced

to

approximately

foreight

hours

before

the

exam

is

passed

out.

2)Phase

two

is

entered

two

days

prior

to

the

test.

3)Phase

three

,the

finalis

entered

twelve

hours

before

“Zero

Hour.第37页/共57页Sample

2

Students

in

our

school

fall

into

three

groups

according

to

theirdifferent

intentions

of

taking

part

in

sports.

Many

students

goto

the

playground

when

they

feel

tired

after

a

few

hours

ofstudy.

These

students

put

much

more

emphasis

on

their

studyefficiency

than

on

the

fun

of

sports.

They

just

want

to

go

backto

their

classrooms

from

the

playground

with

clearer

ad

quickermind.

Thus

they

don’t

actually

care

whether

they

can

enjoythemselves

on

the

sports

ground

or

not.

Students

that

make

upthe

second

group

are

real

sports

lovers.

Sometimes

they

even

put

aside

their

study

for

a

game.

They

take

part

in

the

sportthat

interests

them

most,

no

caring

whether

it

is

most

beneficialto

their

health.第38页/共57页Sample

2

The

third

group

want

s

beauty

from

sports.

Bowant

to

become

strong;

girls

want

to

be

slim

agraceful.

Those

who

consider

sports

the

onlyway

of

reducing

weight

also

belong

to

this

grThey

are

very

carefully

choosing

the

kind

ofexercise

they

do,

and

they

are

afraid

that

cesports

may

ruin

their

figures.

No

matter

whicgroup

they

belong

to,

they

all

benefit

formsports.第39页/共57页QuestionsWhat

is

the

topic

sentence?

What

is

the

subject

classified?

How

manygroups

has

it

been

divided

into?

Are

the

groups

arranged

in

the

same

order

asSample

1?

If

not,

in

what

order

are

they

arran第40页/共57页Answers

In

Sample

1

groups

are

arranged

in

time

orderwhile

in

Sample

2,

groups

are

arranged

in

theorder

of

degree,

i.e.

from

the

less

specificstrong

intention

to

more

specific

and

strongones.第41页/共57页outlineTopic

sentence:

students

in

our

school

fall

into

three

groups

according

totheir

different

intentions

of

taking

part

in

sports.Division:

1)

students

who

go

to

the

playground

when

they

feel

tiredafter

study.

2)

real

sports

lovers

who

even

put

aside

their

studies

for

agame.3)

students

who

want

beauty

from

sportsConcluding

sentence:

No

matter

which

group

they

belong

to,

they

all

benefitform

sports.第42页/共57页Summary

A

paragraph

of

classification

usually

consists

of

atopic

sentence,

abody,

and

a

concluding

sentence.

The

topic

sentence

has

a

clar

subject

and

indicatesthe

number

of

categories

intowhich

you

are

going

toclassify

the

subject.

The

body

explains

each

categoryone

by

one

in

a

logical

order.

It

may

be

the

order

oftime

sequence,

or

from

the

less

specific

to

the

morespecific,

or

from

the

less

important

to

the

moreimportant,

and

so

on.

The

concluding

sentence,

though

it

can

be

omitted

in

some

cases,

bringreader’s

attention

back

to

the

topic.第43页/共57页II.

Principles

to

classify

(

by

which

to

classify)Depending

on

your

need

and

the

purpose

of

writing,

youcan

classify

a

subject

in

several

ways

by

using

differentprinciples.

e.g.to

classify

the

friends

you

havefind

out

the

categories

that

can

be

used

to

discuss

thesubject.

e.g.age:

young,

middle-aged,

oldlength

of

friendship:

new,

old,

lifelongmarital

status:

unmarried,

married,

divorcedsocial

status:

average

Joe

and

Jane,

mid-levelmanagement,

high-ranking

officialsthen

find

the

most

relevant

category.第44页/共57页2.

to

describe

your

professors1)

find

out

the

categories

that

can

be

used

to

discussthe

subject.(according

to….)agegender,personality,teaching

style,ranking,popularity,style

of

dress

and

accent.then

find

the

most

relevant

category

To

write

about

effectiveness

of

teaching,

you

may

chooseteaching

style.

To

write

about

the

living

conditions

,

you

may

choose

styleof

dress.第45页/共57页Practice:

Look

at

the

following

outlines,

and

determine

whether

they

areappropriatelyclassified1.Subject:

moviesDivision:

actioncomedyromancehorrorComment:

not

complete,More

:

tragedy,

science

fiction,etc2.

Subject:

friendsDivision:

new

friendsold

friendslife-long

friendsfemale

friendsComment:female

…

overlaps

with

othercatergories,

should

beexclusive第46页/共57页3.

Subject:newspapersDivision:wrapping

garbagemaking

paperplanesreadingeditorialComment:

nothere

should

be4.

Subject:college

classesDivision:

enjoytoleratemorningdislikeclear

principle,Comment:

noclear

principle,第47页/共57页Summary

To

achieve

effectiveness

inclassification,

we

must

follow

someimportant

principles:

1.select

one

appropriate

principleas

the

basis

of

each

classificationaccording

to

your

purpose

ofwriting,and

stick

to

it

within

thewhole

paragr第a48页p/共h57.页2.

Make

sure

that

the

categories

areIV.

Expressions

often

usedThere

are

different

kinds

of

people

in

societyAny

good

library

should

contain

three

types

of

materials.

Universities

in

China

can

be

divided

into

two

kinds

ccordingto

the

ownership.Bus

drivers

in

this

city

fall

into

the

following

categories/types: the

friendly,

the

indifferent,

and

the

mean第49页/共57页VerbsNounsfall

intoclasses,groups,kindstypesaspectscategoriesdivide…intogroup…intoclassify

intobe

categorized

intoA.

these

B.

thirdD.

before

E.

typesF.

ThenC.

FinallyG.

ThoughI.

Even

thoughH.

howeverJ.

IfDepartment

stores

usually

have

three

different(1)

of

salesmen:

themislocated,

the

eager-beaver(做事积极、勤奋的人),

and

the

daydreaming

one.The

mislocated

salesman

is

frequently

found

three

departments

away

from

wherehe

should

be.

(2)

he

might

notice

you

waiting

patiently

in

hisdepartment,

it

usually

takes

him

at

least

five

minutes

to

walk

back

to

his

department.(3)

,

upon

his

arrival,

he

tells

you

that

the

store

is

completely

out

of

theitem

that

you

wanted.

The

eager-beaver

salesman,

(4)

,

is

always

ready

tosell

you

anything.

(5)

you

might

just

be

passing

through

his

department,you

can

be

sure

that

he

will

stop

you

to

see

if

you

need

his

help.

(6)

youleave,

he

will

probably

be

trying

to

sell

you

something

that

you

don’t

need

——

likean

automatic

garage

door

opener

for

the

garage

that

you

don’t

have.

The

(7)

type

of

salesman

is

the

daydreamer.

He

is

usually

a

part-time

who

canbe

found

standing

in

his

department

totally

unaware

of

his

surroundings.

(8)

and

when

you

get

his

attention,

he

will

probably

answer

you

with

an

“Idon’t

know.

Let

me

check.”

(9)

off

he

goes

and

that’s

the

last

you

willsee

of

him.

The

next

time

you