二语习得期末复习资料

第页Chapter1introducingsecondlanguageacquisitionSLA:atermthatrefersbothtothestudyofindividualsandgroupswhoarelearningalanguagesubsequenttolearningtheirfirstoneasyoungchildren,andtotheprocessoflearningthatlanguage.Secondlanguage:anofficiallyorsocietallydominantlanguage(notL1)neededforeducation,employmentorotherbasicpurposesInformalL2learning:SLAthattakesplaceinnaturalisticcontextsFormalL2learning:instructedlearningthattakesplaceinclassroomLinguisticcompetence:theunderlyingknowledgethataspeaker/hearerhaveofalanguage.Chomskydistinguishesthisformlinguisticperformance.Linguisticperformance:theuseoflanguageknowledgeinactualproduction.Firstlanguage/nativelanguage/mothertongue(L1):thelanguageacquiredinchildhoodSimultaneousmultilingualism:abilitytouseoneormorelanguagesthatwereauqiredduringearlychildhood.Sequentialmultilingualism:abilitytouseoneormorelanguagesthatwerelearnedafterL1hadalreadybeenestablished.WhatarethethreebasicquestionsinSLA?WhatexactlydoestheL2learnercometoknow?HowdoestheL2leaneracquirethisknowledge?Whyaresomelearnersmoresuccessfulthanothers?Whytherearenosimpleanswerstothesequestions?(P2)Chapter2foundationsofsecondlanguageacquisitionMultilingualism:theabilitytousemorethanonelanguage.Bilingualism:theabilitytousetwolanguages.Monolingualism:theabilitytouseonlyonelanguage.Multilingualcompetence:“thecompoundstateofamindwithtwoormoregrammars”Monolingualcompetence:knowledgeofonlyonelanguage.Learnerlanguage:alsocalledinterlanguagewhichreferstotheintermediatestatesorinterimgrammarsofleanerlanguageasitmovestowardthetargetL2.Positivetransfer:appropriateincorporation(合并，编入)ofanL1structureorruleinL2structure.Negativetransfer:inappropriateinfluenceofanL1structureorruleinL2use,alsocalledinterference.Fossilization:astablestateinSLAwherelearnersceasetheirinterlanguagedevelopmentbeforetheyreachtargetnormsdespitecontinuingL2inputandpassageoftime.Poverty-of-the-stimulus:theargumentthatbecauselanguageinputtochildrenisimpoverished(穷尽的)andtheystillacquireL1,theremustbeaninnatecapacityforL1acquisition.Innatecapacity:anaturalability,usuallyreferringtochildren’snaturalabilitytolearnoracquirelanguage.Whatisthenatureoflanguagelearning?Simultaneous/sequentialmultilingualismTheroleofnaturalabilityHumansarebornwithanaturalabilityorinnatecapacitytolearnanotherlanguage.Aschildrenmature,sodotheirlanguageabilities.Individualvariationmayoccurinlearning;therateoflearningcandiffer,buttherearestageseveryonegoesthrough.“Cutoffpoint”-iftheprocessdoesnothappenatayoungage,you'llneverlearnthelanguage.（关键期假说）(CriticalPeriodHypothesis)TheroleofsocialexperienceChildrenwillneveracquirelanguageunlessthatlanguageisusedwiththemandaroundthem,nomatterwhatistheirlanguage.Aslongaschildrenareexperiencinginputandsocialinteraction,therateandsequenceofdevelopmentdoesn'tchange.Theonlythingthatmaychangeispronunciation,vocabulary,andsocialfunction.WhataresomebasicsimilaritiesanddifferencesinL1andL2learning?(P17表格)SimilaritiesbetweenL1andL2DevelopmentstagesInitialState-knowledgeaboutlanguagestructuresandprinciplesIntermediateState-BasiclanguagedevelopmentFinalState-OutcomeoflearningNecessaryconditions:InputDifferencesbetweenL1andL2（P17表格）Whatis“thelogicalproblemoflanguageacquisition”?Children’sknowledgeoflanguagegoesbeyondwhatcouldbelearnedfromtheinputtheyreceive.(Poverty-of-thestimulus)ConstraintsandprinciplescannotbelearnedUniversalpatternsofdevelopmentcannotbeexplainedbylanguage-specificinput.(如果说普遍语法存在孩子们脑中，那语言输入起的作用又如何解释呢？)FrameworkforSLA(P24&P26)Perspectives,foci,andframeworksperspectivefociframeworkLinguisticInternalTransformational-GenerativeGrammarPrinciplesandParametersModelMinimalistProgramexternalFunctionalismpsychologyLanguaheandthebrainNeurolinguisticsLearningprocessesInformationProcessingProcessabilityConnectionismIndividualdifferenceHumanisticmodelsSocialMicrosocialVariationTheoryAccomodationTheorySocioculturalTheoryMacrosocialEthnographyofCommunicationAcculturationTheorySocialPsychologyGiveatleastthreereasonsthatmanyscientistsbelieveinsomeinnatecapacityforlanguageChildrenbegintolearntheirlanguageatthesameage,andinmuchthesamewayregardlessofwhatthelanguageis.Childrenarenotlimitedtorepeatingwhattheyheard;theycanunderstandandcreatenovel(新颖)utterance.Thereisacut-offageforL1acquisition,beyondwhichitcanneverbecompleted.Linguistshavetakenaninternalandexternalfocustothestudyoflanguageacquisition.Whatisthedifferencebetweenthetwo?Theinternalfocusseekstoaccountforspeakers’internalized,underlyingknowledgeoflanguage.Theexternalfocusemphasizeslanguageuse,includingthefunctionsoflanguagewhicharerealizedinlearners’productionatdifferentstagesofdevelopment.Chapter3thelinguisticsofsecondlanguageacquisitionInterference:alsocallednegativetransfer,whichmeansinappropriateinfluenceofanL1structureorruleinL2use.Interlanguage:alsocalledlearnerlanguage,whichreferstotheintermediatestatesorinterimgrammarsofleanerlanguageasitmovestowardthetargetL2.Naturalorder:auniversalsequenceinthegrammaticaldevelopmentoflanguagelearners.Universalgrammar:alinguisticframeworkdevelopedmostprominentlybyChomskywhichclaimsthatL1acquisitionscanbeaccountedforonlybyinnateknowledgethatthehumanspeciesisgeneticallyendowedwith.Thisknowledgeincludeswhatalllanguageshaveincommon.Languagefaculty:termusedbyChomskyfoea“componentofthehumanmind”thataccountsforchildren’sinnateknowledgeoflanguage.Principles:properties(固有属性)ofalllanguagesoftheworld;partofChomsky’suniversalgrammar.Parameters:limitedoptionsinrealizationofuniversalprincipleswhichaccountforgrammaticalvariationbetweenlanguagesoftheworld.PartofChomsky’stheoryofuniversalgrammar.Initialstate:thestartingpointoflanguageacquisition;itisthoughttoincludetheunderlyingknowledgeaboutlanguagestructuresandprinciplesthatareinlearners’headsattheverystartofL1orL2acquisition.Finalstate:theoutcomeofL1andL2learning,alsoknownasthestablestateofadultgrammar.Markedness:abasicforclassificationoflanguagesaccordingtowhetheraspecificfeatureoccursmorefrequentlythanacontrastingelementinthesamecategory,islesscomplexstructurallyorconceptually,orismore“normal”or“expected”alongsomedimensions.Grammaticalization(语法化):adevelopmentalprocessinwhichagrammaticalfunction(suchasexpressionofpasttime)isfirstconveyedbysharedextralinguisticknowledgeandinferencingbasedonthecontextofdiscourse,thenbyalexicalword(suchasyesterday),andonlylaterbyagrammaticalmarker(suchasthesuffix-ed).ThenatureoflanguageWhatwelearninlinguisticperspective?Whatarethecharacteristicsoflanguage?BothL1andL2learnersacquireknowledgeatthesedifferentlevels:lexicon(词汇学),phonology(语音学),morphology(构词法),syntax(句法).Languagesaresystemic,symbolicandsocial.ContrastiveanalysisWhatiscontrastiveanalysis?CAisanapproachtothestudyofSLAwhichinvolvespredictingandexplaininglearnerproblemsbasedonacomparisonofL1andL2todeterminesimilaritiesanddifferences.Whatisthegoalofcontrastiveanalysis?(assumptions)IfL2acquisitionisdisturbedbythehabitsofyournativelanguage,itisreasonabletofocusonthedifferencesbetweennativeandtargetlanguage.Contrastiveanalysishadapracticalgoal:Ifyourecognizethedifferencesbetweenyournativelanguageandthetargetlanguage,youareabletoovercomethelinguistichabitsofyournativelanguagethatinterferewiththehabitsofthetargetlanguage.Whatarethecritiquesofcontrastiveanalysis?TheprocessofL2acquisitionisnotsufficientlydescribedbythecharacterizationoferrors.ErrorsinL2acquisitiondonotonlyarisefrominterference.ThestructuraldifferencesbetweentwolanguagesarenotsufficienttopredicttheoccurrenceoferrorsinL2acquisition.ErroranalysisWhatiserroranalysis？EAisbasedonthedescriptionandanalysisofactuallearnererrorsinL2,ratherthanonidealizedlinguisticstructuresattributedtonativespeakersofL1andL2(asinCA).WhatisthedifferencebetweenCAandEA?ContrastiveanalysisErroranalysisPedagogicalorientationScientificorientationFocusoninput,practice,inductivelearningFocusonlinguisticandcognitiveprocessesErrorsoftransferMultipletypesoferrorsWhataretheshortcomingsofEA?Ambiguityinclassification.(不知道是具体是哪个原因导致比如时态错误，可能是一语影响，也可能是在一语中出现过的universaldevelopmentalprocess)Lackofpositivedata.(正确的被忽略，只关注错误不能看出学生学到什么)Potentialforavoidance.(学生会避免错误，这样错误就不能全部被观察)InterlanguageWhatarethecharacteristicsofinterlanguage?Systematic.Dynamic.Variable.(可变性)althoughsystematic,differencesincontextresultindifferentpatternsoflanguageuse.Reducedsystem,bothinformandfunction.(学习者经常会简单化)TherearedifferencesbetweenILdevelopmentandL1acquisition,includingdifferentcognitiveprocessesinvolved:LanguagetransferfromL1toL2.Transfertraining.Strategiesofsecondlanguagelearning.(避免等)Strategiesofsecondlanguagelearning.(为方便不要复数等)Overgeneralizationofthetargetlanguagelinguisticmaterial.ThebeginningandtheendofILaredefinedrespectivelyaswheneveralearnerfirstattemptstoconveymeaningintheL2andwheneverdevelopment“permanently”stops,buttheboundariesarenotentirelyclear.Identificationoffossilizationisevenmorecontroversial.Monitormodel(Theinputhypothesismodel)Whichfivehypotheses(假定)doesthemodelconsistof?(课本P45！！！)Acquisition-learninghypothesisMonitorhypothesisNaturalorderhypothesisInputhypothesisAffectivefilterhypothesisWhatisLADinthismodel?TheLADismadeupofthenaturallanguagelearningabilitiesofthehumanmind,totallyavailableinL1acquisition,availableinL2acquisitionaccordingtothelevelofthefilter.But,theprocessoflearning,unliketheprocessofacquisition,usesfacultiesofmindoutsidetheLAD.图示WhatarepointsoftheconsensusofearlylinguisticstudyofSLA?WhatisbeingacquiredthroughadynamicinterlanguagesystemHowSLAtakesplaceinvolvescreativementalprocessesWhysomelearnersaremoresuccessfulthanothersrelatesprimarytotheage.WhatistheroleofgrammaraccordingtoKrashen?Theonlyinstanceinwhichtheteachingofgrammarcanresultinlanguageacquisition(andproficiency)iswhenthestudentsareinterestedinthesubjectandthetargetlanguageisusedasamediumofinstruction.UniversalgrammarDifferencesoflinguisticcompetenceandperformance(见Chapter1名词解释)WhatisUG?(名词解释)UGandL1acquisitionWhatthechildacquireisselectingparametricoptions.UnlikeSLA,attitudes,motivationsandsocialcontextplaynorole.UGandSLA,therearethreeimportantquestionsWhatistheinitialstateofSAL?Interference(看参数相同不相同);noagreementonaccesstoUGWhatisthenatureofILandhowdoesitchangeovertime?定参数的过程Languagefaculty;positive/negativeevidence(起作用);constructionism;fossilizationWhatisthefinalstateinSLA?(P52五个达不到的原因)Functionalapproaches(systemiclinguistics)Whatarethefourfunctionalapproaches?TheyareSystemicLinguistics;FunctionalTypology;Function-to-formmapping;Informationorganization.WhatisSystemicLinguistics(系统功能语言学)?DevelopedbyHillidayinthelate1950s,itisamodelforanalyzinglanguageintermsoftheinterrelatedsystemsofchoicesthatareavailableforexpressingmeaning.儿童的语言体系是一个意义体系，语言是从意义体系逐渐发展而来，经历过有简单到复杂的过程。不同有不同意义，根据需要选择最佳的（红绿灯）。Whatacquirebylanguagelearnersismeaningpotential.Therearesevenfunctionsoflanguage.(P53)Systemiclinguistsadvancefourtheoreticalclaimsaboutlanguage:Thatlanguageuseisfunctional;Thatitsfunctionistomakemeanings;Thatthesemeaningsareinfluencedbythesocialandcontextinwhichtheyareexchanged.Thattheprocessofusinglanguageisasemioticprocess,aprocessofmakingmeaningsbychoosing.Allofthefunctionalapproachesdiscussedherebasicallyagreeonthefollowing:WhatisbeingacquiredinSLAisasystemforconveyingmeaning,Howlanguageisacquiredimportantlyinvolvescreativelearnerinvolvementincommunication,andUnderstandingofSLAprocessesisimpossibleiftheyareisolatedfromcircumstancesofuse.Chapter4thepsychologyofsecondlanguageacquisitionLateralization:differentspecificationoftwohalvesofthebrain.Forexample,thelefthemispherebecomesspecializedformostlanguageactivity,manybelieveduringacriticalperiodforlanguagedevelopment.Criticalperiodhypothesis(临界期假设):theclaimthatchildrenhavetheonlyalimitednumberofyearsduringwhichtheycanacquiretheirL1flawlessly;iftheysufferbraindamagetothelanguageareas,brainplasticityinchildhoodwouldallowotherareasofthebraintotakeoverthelanguagefunctionsofthedamagedarea,butbeyondacertainage,normallanguagedevelopmentwouldnotbepossible.ThisconceptiscommonlyextendedtoSLAaswell,intheclaimthatonlychildrenarelikelytoachievenativeornear-nativeproficiencyinL2.Informationprocessing(IP):acognitiveframeworkwhichassumesthatSLA(likelearningofotherdomains)proceedsfromcontroltoautomaticprocessingandinvolvesprogressivereorganizationofknowledge.Controlledprocessing:raninitialstageofthelearningprocessthatdemandslearner’sattention.Automaticprocessing:afteraninitialstageofcontrolprocessing,automaticprocessingisastageinlearningthatrequireslessmental“space”andattentioneffortonthelearner’spart.Reconstructing:thereorganizationofknowledgethattakeplaceinthecentralprocessingstageofinformationprocessing.Input:whateversampleofL2leanerexposeto.Output:inSLA,thelanguagethatlearnersproduceinspeech/signorinwriting.U-shapeddevelopment:asequenceofacquisitionforelementsofbothL1andL2wherelearneruseaninitiallycorrectformsuchaspluralfeet,thenanincorrectfoots.Finally,learnersreturntofeetwhentheybegintoacquireexceptionstothepluralinflectionrule.Connectionism:acognitiveframeworkforexplaininglearningprocesses,beginninginthe1980sandbecomingincreasinglyinfluential.ItassumesthatSLAresultsfromincreasingstrengthofassociationsbetweenstimulusandresponse.Aptitude:anindividualsetofcharacteristicswhichcorrelatewithsuccessinlanguagelearning.Motivation:aneedanddesiretolearn.Cognitivestyle:anindividual’spreferredwayofprocessing:i.e.ofperceiving,conceptualizing,organizingandrecallinginformation.Learningstrategies:thebehaviorandtechniquesthatindividualsadoptintheeffortstolearnL2.Inpsychologicalrespective,whatarethethreefoci?Whatisstressedineach?First,itfocusonlanguageandbrain,addressingwhatisbeingacquiredinaphysicalsense;second,itfocusesonthelearningprocess(IPandconnectionism),addressinghowacquisitiontakesplace.Finally,itfocusesonthedifferencesonlearners,addressingthequestionofwhysomeL2learnersaremoresuccessfulthanothers.ItappearsthatL1andL2arestoredinsomewhatdifferentareasofthebrain,andtherighthemispheremightbemoreinvolvedinL2thanL1.Age/lessplasticity;howindependentarethelanguagesofmultilingualspeakers?(coordinate,compoundandsubordinate)WhatarethethreestagesofIP?Whatmustlearnersdotomakeinputavailableforprocessing?Theyareinput,centralprocessingandoutput.(Centralprocessingistheheartofthemodel,wherelearningoccurs,fromcontrolledtoautomaticprocessingandwherereconstructingtakesplace.)|Learnersmustnoticeorpayattentiontoinputtomakeitavailableforprocessing;thiskindofinputiscalledintake.|SwaincontendsthatoutputisnecessaryforsuccessfulL2learningbecauseithelpsdevelopautomaticitythroughpracticeandbecauseithelpslearnersnoticeintheirownknowledge.(区别于monitormodel中的只要有enoughcomprehensiveinput就可以了)Whatarethetheoriesregardingorderofacquisition?Theyaremultidimensionalmodel(P76)andprocessabilitytheory.Whatiscompetitionmodel?ItisafunctionalapproachtoSLAwhichassumesthatalllinguisticperformanceinvolves“mapping”betweenexternalformandinternalfunction.(根据语境来选择son的用词)Theconnectionistapproachtolearningfocusesontheincreasingstrengthofassociationsbetweenstimuliandresponse,consideringlearningachangeinthestrengthoftheseassociations.Thedifferencesbetweenlearnersareage(P82),sex,aptitude,motivation,cognitivestyle,personality,andlearningstrategies.MotivationlargelydeterminesthelevelofeffortwhichlearnersexpendatvariousstagesintheirL2development,oftenakeytoultimatelevelofproficiency.Twotypesofmotivationareintegratedandinstrumentalmotivation(融和型动机和工具型动机).ThereisahighcorrelationbetweenstrengthofmotivationandlevelofL2achievement.Whatiscognitivestyle?Cognitivestylereferstoindividuals’preferredwayofinformationprocessing,i.e.ofperceiving,conceptualizing,organizing,andrecallinginformation.Cognitivestyleiscloselyrelatedtoandinteractswithpersonalityfactorsandlearningstrategies.Among5pairsoftraitsincognitivestyleconcerningL2proficiency(P87),thefield-dependent/field-independentanddeductive/inductivearemostfrequentlyreferredtoinSLA.Whatisthedifferencebetweenbottom-upandtop-downprocessing?Deductive(演绎)ortop-downprocessingbeginswithapredictionorruleandthenappliesittointerpretparticularinstancesofinput.Inductive(归纳)orbottom-upprocessingbeginswithexamininginputtodiscoversomepatternandthenformulatesageneralizationorrulethataccountsforitandthattheninturnbeapplieddeductively.(inductive是aptitude四种能力之一)10PairsofPersonalityTraitsAnxiousSelf-confidentRisk-avoidingRisk-takingShyAdventuresomeIntrovertedExtrovertedInner-directedOther-directedReflectiveImpulsiveImaginativeUninquisitiveCreativeUncreativeEmpatheticInsensitivetoothersTolerantofambiguityClosure-orientedWhatistheAtypologyoflanguage-learningstrategies?WhatarethegoodLearnerTraitsin

L2LearningStrategies?TheyareMeta-cognitivestrategy,cognitivestrategyandsocial/affectivestrategy.Meta-cognitivestrategiesarethosewhichattempttoregulatelanguagelearningbyplanningandmonitoring.Cognitivestrategiesmakeuseofdirectanalysisoflinguisticmaterial.Social/affectivestrategiesinvolveinteractionwithothers.1)Concernforlanguageform(butalsoattentiontomeaning);2)Concernforcommunication;3)Activetaskapproach;4)Awarenessofthelearningprocess;5)Capacitytousestrategiesflexiblyinaccordancewithtaskrequirements.Chapter5socialcontextsofsecondlanguageacquisitionCommunicativecompetence:definedas“whataspeakerneedstoknowtocommunicateappropriatelywithinaparticularlanguagecommunity”Languagecommunity:agroupofpeoplewhoshareknowledgeofacommonlanguageatleasttosomeextent.Foreignertalk:speechL1speakersaddressedtol2speakersthatdiffersinsystematicwaysfromlanguageaddressedtonativeorveryinfluentspeakers.(themodifiedvarietyP106includinginputmodificationandinteractivemodification)Directcorrection:explicitstatementsaboutincorrectlanguageuse.Indirectcorrection:implicitfeedbackaboutinappropriatelanguageuse,suchasclarificationrequestswhenthelistenerhasactuallyunderstoodtheutterance.Interactionhypothesis:theclaimthatmodificationsandcollaborativeeffortswhichtakeplaceinsocialinteractionfacilitateSLAbecausetheycontributetotheaccessibilityofinputofmentalprocessing.Symbolicmediation:alinkbetweenaperson’scurrentmentalstateandhigherorderfunctionsthatisprovidedprimarilybylanguage;consideredtheusualroutetolearning(oflanguage,andoflearningingeneral).PartofVygotsky’sSocioculturaltheory.Interpersonalinteraction:communicativeeventsandsituationswhichoccurbetweenpeople.Zoneofproximaldevelopment(ZPD):Thisisanareaofpotentialdevelopment,wherethelearnercanachievethatpotentialonlywithassistance.PartofVygotsky’sSocioculturaltheory.Scaffolding:verbalguidancewhichanexpertprovidestohelpalearnerperformanyspecifictask,ortheverbalcollaborationofpeerstoperformataskwhichwouldbetoodifficultforanyoneofthemindividualperformance.Intrapersonalinteraction:communicationthatoccurswithinanindividual’sownmind.Acculturation(文化适应):learningthecultureofL2communityandadaptingtothosevaluesandbehaviorpatterns.Additivebilingualism:theresultofSLAinsocialcontextswheremembersofadominantgrouplearnthelanguageofasubordinategroupwithoutthreattotheirL1competenceortotheirethnicidentity.Subtractivebilingualism:theresultofSLAinsocialcontextswheremembersofasubordinategrouplearnthedominantlanguageasL2andaremorelikelytoexperiencesomelossofethnicidentityandattrition(消耗)ofL1skills—especiallyiftheyarechildren.Whatarethetwolevelsthataffectlanguagelearning?Themicrosocialfocusdealswiththepotentialeffectsofdifferentimmediatelysurroundingcircumstances,whilethemacrosocialfocusrelatesSLAtobroadercultural,political,andeducationalenvironments.Insocialperspective,whatisL1andL2learning?L1learningforchildrenisanintegralpartoftheirsocializationintotheirnativelanguagecommunity;L2learningmaybepartofsecondculturelearningandadaptation,buttherelationshipofSLAtosocialandculturallearningdiffersgreatlywithcircumstances.MicrosocialfactorsVariationinlearnerlanguageWhichvariablefeatureoccursintheproductionofanyonespeakerdependslargelyonthecommunicativecontextsinwhichithasbeenlearnedandisused.Therearethreecommunicativecontexts:linguistic,psychological,andmicrosocialcontexts.(P103)InputandinteractionFromasocialperspective,interactionisgenerallyseenasessentialinprovidinglearnerswithquantityandqualityofexternallinguisticinputwhichisrequiredforinternalprocessing.NatureofinputmodificationNatureofinteractionalmodificationFeedbackIntaketocognitiveprocessing(interactionhypothesis)TheSocioculturaltheory(SCT)(Interactionasthegenesisoflanguage自己组织语言)InterpersonalinteractionZoneofproximaldevelopmentScaffoldingIntrapersonalinteraction;privatespeech/innerspeechMacrosocialfactorsGlobalandnationalstatusofL1andL2BoundariesandidentitiesInstitutionalforcesandconstraintsSocialcategories(age,sex,ethnicity,educationlevel,occupation,etc.)Additivebilingualism/subtractivebilingualismCircumstancesoflearningPrioreducationalexperienceLearner’differencesincognitivestyleandlearningstrategiesInformalorformallearning/naturalisticorinstructedlearningWhatisthedifferencebetweencommunicativecompetenceandlinguisticcompetence?Linguisticcompetenceistheunderlyingknowledgethataspeaker/hearerhasofalanguage.Communicativecompetenceisdefinedas“whataspeakerneedstoknowtocommunicateappropriatelywithinaparticularlanguagecommunity”.Chapter6acquiringknowledgeforL2UsePragmaticcompetence:knowledgepeoplemustknowinordertointerpretandconveymeaningwithincommunicativesituations.Academiccompetence:theknowledgeneededbylearnerswhowanttousetheL2primarilytolearnothersubjects,orasatoolinscholarlyresearch,orasamediuminaspecificprofessionaloroccupationalfield.Interpersonalcompetence:knowledgerequiredoflearnerswhoplantousetheL2primarilyinface-to-facecontactwithotherspeakers.Cohesion:linguisticmarkingoflinksbetweenelementsofatext.Theseprovideunityandconsistencyofthought,logicandstructure.Genre:conventionalizedcategoriesandtypesofdiscourse.Bottom-upprocessing:achievinginterpretationandproductionoflanguagemeaningthroughpriorknowledgeofthelanguagesystemandphysicalcues.To