中国模板网English Language Teaching Methodology 英语教学法

EnglishLanguage

TeachingMethodology

Unit2

AnqingTVUniversity

ProducedbyXuanSheng-li

英语教学法

Unit2

CommunicativeMethodActivity1CommunicativeCompetenceActivity2LanguageProcessingandProductionActivity3IntroductiontoCommunicativeLanguageTeaching(CLT)Activity4CommunicativeActivities

ObjectivesBytheendofthisunit,youshouldhaveageneralidealwhatitmeanstodeveloplearner`communicativecompetenceandwhatthatinvolves;Beawareoftheimportanceofknowledgeaboutlanguageprocessingandbeabletoapplyyourunderstandingofittotheteachingofallthelanguageskills,aswellastotheselectionofsupplementarymaterials;Understandthebasicprinciplesofcommunicativelanguageteaching;Beabletofollowthegeneralguidelinesfoetheteachingoflanguageskill;Beabletouseinformation-gapandroleplayingactivitiestopracticethelearners`communicativeskills.

InteractionPatterns1.A→Bonepersonspeakstoanother2.A→Bonepersonspeakstotwopersons↘C3.A→Bonepersonspeakstoseveralothers↑↘DC4.A→Btwopeoplespeaktoeachother5.A→Bthreeormorepeoplespeaktoeachother↑↖↓↘DC

Activity1

CommunicativeCompetence

Part1TheCharacteristicsoftheTraditionalApproachPart2WhatisYourRealMeaning?Part3ExpressingFunctionalMeaningPart4TheAppropriatenessofLanguagePart5FeaturesofCommunicationPart6CommunicativeCompetenceanddevelopment

Part1Thecharacteristicsofthe

TraditionalApproach

ThebriefteachingplanStage1Thestudentreadsaloudthenewwordsandexpressionsbyimitating.Theteachertriestohelpthemrememberofthemeaningofeachthewordbyreadingitrepeatedlyandmechanically.Stage2Studentsreadthepatterndrillsloudinthesamewayastheydidwiththenewwordsforthesamepurpose,andthentranslatethemonebyoneintoChinese.

Stage3Teachersthenstartarrangingthetextthesentencebysentenceandparagraphbyparagraph:explainingthelanguagepoints,dwellinguponthegrammarrules,analyzingthesentences,providingtheChineseequivalents,givingexamplestodemonstratetheusageofcertainwordsandexpressions.Stage4Teachersteachthegrammarrule.Theteacherexplainsandillustratesbypointingtoexamplesinthetextorbytakingexamplesfromdictionariesorgrammarbooks..Stage5Studentsdothewrittenexercises,suchasfillingintheblankswiththecorrectformoftheverb,adverb,orpreposition,ortheydothemultiple-choiceexercises..

Part2WhatisYourReal

Meaning?

AsaystoB:

“Haveyouhadyourlunch?"1.WhatdoesAwanttodobysayingthis?Youmaychoosethefollowinglist.:a)AgenuinelywantstoknowthesincerelyifBhaseatenameal.Itisaquestionforinformation.b)AwantstoinvitetheBameal.Thisisthepolitebeginningoftheinvitation.c)Awantstosay"Hello".Itisaninformalgreeting.

Yourchoice:__C

2.IfyouareaB,howdoyouwanttorespondtoA?Youranswer:Therefore,forthesakeofourstudent,knowinghowtomakecorrectsentencesisonlyonepartofwhatwemeanbyknowingalanguage,whichisofcourseanessentialpart,butithasveryvalueonitsown;ithastobesupplementedbyaknowledgeoftheappropriatenessandthefunctionofthelanguagewhenitisusedasanormalmeansofcommunication.

Part3ExpressingFunctional

MeaningCommunicationtakesplaceonlywhenweusetheutterancestodosomethingforus.Forexample,weusesentencestodescribethings,makerequests,givingordersoraskforinformation,andsoon.Thus,languagecarriesfunctionalmeaning.Asinglelinguisticformcanexpressanumberofcommunicativefunctions,whilecanalsobeexpressedbyanumberoflinguisticforms.

Supposeyouhaveleftthedooropenandthatyouwantsomeonetoclosethedoor.Howmanylinguisticformscanyouuse?1.Couldyouclosethedoorafteryou,please?2.Closethedoor!3.It’sawfullydraughtyinhere,isn’tit?4.Wouldyoumindclosingthedoor,please?5.Wereyouborninafield?6.Closethedoorplease,John.

Threebasicskillsareinvolvedinrealcommunication:theabilitytounderstandlanguagestructureandvocabularyandtocomposestructurallycorrectsentences;theknowledgeofpossiblecommunicativefunctionsoflinguisticforms(e.g.Haveyouhadyourlunch?=agreetingoraninvitation);theabilitytotakeintoconsiderationtheknowledgeofthesituationandsocialfactorsandrelatethemtolinguisticforms,inordertointerpretorexpresstheintendedmeaning.

Asaconclusion,wearguethatitisabsolutelynecessarytoteachthesecondandthethirdabilitiesinthatlist,becausetheteachingofthestructurecanonlyprovidestudentswithabasicknowledgeoftheessentialsofthelanguagebutaknowledgeofhowtocomposecorrectsentencescannotautomaticallyleadtotheabilityofusingthesentencesincommunication.Studentshavetobeprovidedwithopportunitiestousingthecommunicativefunctionsandthesentencestructuresandtodevelopstrategiesforinterpretinglanguageinactualuse.

Part4TheAppropriateness

ofLanguageExample1:

Inviteaclosefriendtodinnertonight.Whatwouldyousay?Let’shavedinnertogetherthisevening.Cometomyplacetohavesomedumplingstonight.It’smytreattonight.Whydon’tweeattogetherthisevening?

Or:Wouldyoupleasestaytohavedinnerwithus?We’dfeelhonoredifyoucouldcometoourplaceandhaveamealwithustonight.Ifyouhavetime,we’dliketoinviteyoutoaChineserestauranttonight.

Example2:Asksomeonetoshutthewindow.“Shutthewindow,willyou?〞(toyourclassmate)“Excuseme,wouldyoumindshuttingthewindow?〞(toastrangeronthebus)Inconclusion,todifferentpeople,weusedifferentstructure,justlikewearingdifferentclothesondifferentoccasions.Part5FeaturesofCommunication1.Focusonmeaning2.Dialogues,ifused,centeraroundcommunicativefunctions3.Conceptualizationisabasicpremise(以情景为前提)4.Leaningtocommunicative5.Effectivecommunicationissought.6.Comprehensivepronunciationissought.7.Anydevicewhichhelpsthelearnersisaccepted-varyingaccordingtotheirage,interest,etc.8.Toattemptisencouragedfromtheverybeginning.9.Judicioususeofnativelanguageisacceptedwherefeasible.10.Translationmaybeusedwherestudentsneedorbenefitfromit.

11.Readingandwritingcanstartfromthefirstday,ifdesired.12.Communicativecompetenceisthedesiredgoal.13.Linguisticvariationisacentralconceptinmaterialsandmethodology.14.Sequencingisdeterminedbyanyconsiderationofcontent,function,ormeaningwhichmaintainsinterest.15.Fluencyandacceptablelanguageistheprimarygoal;accuracyisjudgednotintheabstractbutincontext.16.Studentsareexpectedtointeractwithotherpeople,eitherintheflesh,throughpairandgroupwork,orintheirwritings.17.Intrinsicmotivationwillspringfromaninterestinwhatisbeingcommunicatedbythelanguage.

Part6CommunicativeCompetence

anddevelopment1.WhatistheCommunicativeCompetence

2.DevelopmentCommunicativeCompetenceCommunicativeCompetenceWejudgethecorrectnessofasentencenotintermsofgrammar,butwhetheritissuitablefortheparticularsituation.Inthisway,achildacquirescompetenceinwhattosay,whentosayit,whennottoandwhattotalkaboutwithwhom,when,where,andinwhatmanner.Inshort,achildbecomesabletousethelanguagetodothings(i.e.speechacts)forhimself,suchasgivingdirectionsormakingcomplaints,takingpartinspeechevents,suchassocialchit-chat,andtomeasurehissuccessorfailurebytheresponseofothers.Thiscompetenceiscalledcommunicativecompetence

2.DevelopmentofCommunicative

Competence

Howtohelpthestudentstodevelopcommunicativecompetence.Herelookattheresearchthathasbeendoneonfirstlanguageacquisition.(U.9ofLanguageandLinguistics---Aworkbook)Thefactorswhichhelpachildacquirethefirstlanguage:

Innerfactors

Outerfactors1bornwiththedevicetolearnlanguagesufficientcommunicativeinput2desireandneedtocommunicateadultsreadytoresponse3communication-orientatedpractice)encouragement/punishmetfromadults(adequatefeedback4completeinvolvementinthecommunicativecontextAllthecontextualfactorsareavailableforthechildtoprocessandtodevelopcommunicativestrategies

Activity2

LanguageProcessingand

Production

Part1TheKnowledgeInvolvedinLanguageProcessingPart2ThecontributionofBackgroundKnowledgetotheTextComprehensionPart3TheApplicationofBackground

KnowledgePart4DifferencesBetweenOraland

WrittenCommunicationPart5SomeBasicCharacteristicsofOralCommunication

Part1TheKnowledgeInvolvedin

LanguageProcessing

Languagehasnotonlystructuralmeaning,butfunctionalandsocialmeaningsaswell.Thespeakerofthelanguageuseshislinguisticcompetenceandcommunicativecompetence(knowledgeofthesituationandthesocialrelationshipsofthepeopleinvolved)forsuccessfulcommunication.

TextATextBTextCTextD1.Idon’tknowthelanguage..2.Notitleorprevioustext,andwithoutknowledgeofwhere,when,andtowhomthesentenceiswritten/spoken,itisdifficulttoguessthemeaningofthetext.3.Idon’treadthistypeofwritingveryoften.Sothistypeoftextisdifficultforme4.Idon’thavetheproperbackgroundorworldknowledgetousetohelpmycomprehension.5.Thetopicdiscussedistoodifficultandisbeyondmycomprehension.

Part2

ThecontributionofBackgroundknowledgetothetextComprehensionBackgroundknowledge,coversawiderangeofinformationandexperiencestoredinthememory:forexample,generalknowledgeofscientificfactsandhistoricalevents;thebeliefsandconventionsofculture;localknowledgeabouttheplacewherewelive;andtheindividualexperiencesofsocialandprivatelivesInthistaskwearegoingtoexaminethecontributionofbackgroundknowledgetotextcomprehension.Example1Thisisthebeginningsentenceofashortstory“TheWitches’Loaves〞writtenbyO.Henry,anAmericanwriterwhowrotestoriesinEnglishforanEnglish-speakingaudienceMissMarthaMeachamkeptthelittlebakeryonthecorner,theonewhereyougoupthreestepsandthebelltinkleswhenyouopenthedoor.Example2Thenameofstoryis“Lilies〞writtenbytheChinesewriterRuZhijuan.He“waspanickingasifheweresittingnexttoatimebomb.Illatease,hefeltitwasimpolitetoturnhisbackonme,butitembarrassedhimtolookatweandhecouldn’tverywellgetupeither.Tryinghardtokeepastraightface,Iaskedwherehewasfrom.FlusheduplikeaGuangdong,heclearedhisthroatseveraltimesandtoldme:Tianmushan.〞

Part3TheApplicationof

BackgroundKnowledgeExample:AreadingtextaboutanAmericanwedding.Theushersseatedsomeofthebride`sfriendsonhissideofthechurchsothingswouldn`tlookoffbalance.Text1ThefilmAmadeus,aboutMozart,pickedupeightOscarsatlastnight’sawardceremony.TheawardforBestSupportingActresswenttoDamePeggyAshcroftinAPassagetoIndia.Shehadfluanddidnotcollectitherselfbutissaidtobedelighted.Text2Thefilmworld’smostfamousawards,theOscars,wereannouncedinHollywoodlastnight,withtheusualmixofsurpriseanddisappointments.MostoftheOscarswenttotheAmericanBestFilmoftheYear.Britishfilmsdidnotdoaswellaswashoped,althoughoneofthetopawardsdidgotoaBritishstar.DamePeggyAshcroftwonherfirstOscarattheageof77,forBestSupportingActressinthefilmAPassagetoIndia.AmadeusOscarsMozartDamePeggyAshcroftText1ThefilmaboutMozartText2TheAmericanfilmThisisastoryaboutthecomposerMozart.thefilmworld’smostfamousawardsthecomposeBritishstar,wonherfirstOscarattheageof77

Part4

DifferencesBetweenOraland

WrittenCommunicationThetwotypesofspokenandwrittenlanguageexisttofulfildifferentfunctions,demonstratedifferentcharacteristics.Example1(writtenformp.59)Theuseofthistypeofequipmentensuresgreaterefficiencyinthehandlingofofficeproceduresleadingtoincreasedcustomersatisfaction.Example2(oralform)YoucanusethisequipmentlikethisandforallthethingsyouhavetodointheofficeandsoyoucanhandlethemmoreefficientlyandthiswillleadtocustomersbeinghappierasthingsgomorequicklyDifferentfeaturesbetweenthem1.Thespokenlanguageissimplerthanwrittenlanguage.2.Theheavierlexicaldensity,whichmakeswritingseenmorecomplex.(Lexicaldensityreferstothenumberofcontentwordsperclause.)3.Thethirdfeatureisthetendencytousenounsinsteadofverbsinwrittenlanguage.4.Thefourthimportantdifferencecomesfromthefacethatwritingisoftenlessdependentonimmediatecontextthanspeech.Inotherwords,inacertainway,writingiscontextindependent,whereasspeechismorecloselytiedtoitscontext.AProblem(Youmayfindwhendoingclassroomobservation)Whenobservingaclassatwork,youfindthatthestudentscanproducewellstructuredandreasonablygrammaticalwrittentexts,butarelesssuccessfulwhenitcomestospeaking.ThereasonsforthisdeficiencyOnepossiblereasonisthatthestudentsarelearninglanguagefromwrittentextsmorethanfromoraltexts.Theirproductionofbookish-soundinglanguagewhentheyspeakindicatesthattheirlackofexposuretospokenlanguagepreventsthemfromacquiringitsspecificfeatures,whicharedifferentfromthoseofwrittenlanguage.SuggestionstoyouTosolvethequestion,theteachercouldemployseveralstrategies,oneofwhichistodevelopmoreauthenticlisteningactivitiesinclass,gettingthestudentsmoreactivelyinvolvedinrealoralcommunication.

Part5

SomeBasicCharacteristicsof

OralCommunicationInoralcommunication,thereareoftentwoormoreparticipantsinvolved.Theyarerequiredtomakeacollaborativeefforttosustainthedevelopmentoftheconversation.IthasbeenobservedthatinapieceofnaturalEnglishconversation,turnswillbetakensmoothly,withonlylittleoverlapandinterruption,andonlyverybriefsilencesbetweenturns.Peopletaketurnstospeakwhentheyarerequestedtoorwhentheyfeeltheyhavesomethingtocontributetotheconversation.Ifneitherofthesetakesplace,thepersonwhoiscurrentlyspeakingmaycontinue.SpecificlinguisticdevicesforgettingtheturnandinterruptingthenormalflowofspeechSorrytointerrupt,but….IfImay,Mr.President,Iwouldliketoadd….IwonderifImightsaysomething…CanIjustcomeinhere?…CanIinterruptforamoment?….Holdon…Hangonaminute,….Shutupwillyou.OtherwiseIcan’tgetawordin.

Fromthisactivity,weseethatlanguageprocessingmeanstheapplicationofnotonlylinguisticknowledge,butalsomanyotherkindsofknowledge,suchasbackgroundknowledge.Inlanguageteaching,theproperuseofbackgroundknowledgecanhelpcomprehension.Inthisactivity,wehavealsoseensomeofthedifferencesbetweenoralandwrittenlanguage,andidentifiedsomeofthespecificfeaturesoforalcommunication.Thesecanhelpusintheteachingofcommunicativeskills.

Activity3

IntroductiontoCommunicative

LanguageTeaching(CLT)Part1WhatisCLT?Part2ACLTSyllabusPart3Authenticity

Part4RolesofTeachers

Part5RolesofStudents

Part1WhatisCLT?CLT(inthe1960`s)hasdevelopedintoacomprehensiveteachingandlearningmethodology,whichhashadaprofoundeffectonclassroommaterialsandpractice.Thegoalofitistodevelopstudents`communicativecompetence.Inotherwords,thegoalistousethelanguageforcommunicativepurposes.

Part2ACLTsyllabuswilldescribe

generally

1.thesituationsinwhichstudentsmighttypicallyneedtouseaforeignlanguage(e.g.organizingtravel,goingshopping,etc.);2.thetopicstheymightneedtotalkabout(e.g.personaldetails,education,shopping,etc.);3.thefunctionstheyneedlanguagefor(e.g.describingsomething,requestinginformation,expressingagreement,etc.)4.thevocabularyandgrammarstructuresneededfortheseobjectives;5.theskillsrequiredintypicalsituations(e.g.reading,listening,speaking,orwritingskills).Part3AuthenticityWeusuallydescribeatextinaforeignlanguageasauthenticifitiswrittenfornativespeakerstoreadorspokefornativespeakerstolistento.Itisnotsimplifiedinanywayfortheconvenienceoflearnersofthelanguage.Thiscanincludeaverywidevarietyoftextsfromsimplelabelsongoodstoscientificarticles.Wedescribeatasksasauthenticifitisclosetothesortofthingonewouldusetoeachother.So,authenticityinthelanguageclassroomincludestheuseofauthenticclassroomactivities,andtheteacherspeakingauthenticallytothestudents.Part4RolesofTeachers

Examplesofauthenticmaterials:Englishnovels,poems,advertisements,instructionmanuals,songs,films,lectures,speeches,newsreports,radioannouncements,playsandsoon.Thereasonsforusingauthentic

textsareasfollows:Thelanguageisnatural,sostudentswilllearnhowspeakersofthelanguageactuallyuseit.Studentscanlearnmoreaboutthelanguagebyexaminingthediscourse(howthetextisorganizedandthelanguageisusedtoholdittogether)andmoreaboutthebackgroundculture,whichwillhelpthemcomprehendfuturetexts.Reallifeisbroughtintotheclassroom,sothatstudentscanseetheimmediaterelevanceofwhattheyaredoinginclasstowhattheymighttheyaredoinginclasstowhattheymighthavetodolaterinlife.

IncommunicativeactivitiesTheteachershouldalwaysleaveroomforthestudentstonegotiatemeaning,todiscoverwaysofmakingupfortheirlanguagedeficiencyinordertopassonthemessage.Thisispartofthelearningprocessandimportantpracticeofcommunicativestrategiesnecessaryforreallifecommunication.If,however,theteachergiveshelpwheneverthereisaproblem,theopportunityforthestudentstosolvetheproblemsbythemselvesislost.Therefore,theideaisthattheteachershouldstimulateandpromptthestudentswithquestionsorprovidingcluesratherthangivingstraightforwardanswers.Heshouldbehelpingthemonlywhenitisreallynecessary.Part4RolesofTeachers1.Theteacherascontrollerofeverythingthatgoesonintheclassroom.Hecontrolsnotonlywhatthestudentsdo,butwhentheyspeakandwhatlanguagetheyused.2.Theteacherasmanager,organizingtheactivities;3.Theteacherasassessor,givingfeedbackandadvice,aswellascorrectionandgrading.

4.Theteacherasparticipant(co-communicate)inanorganizedactivitysuchasdebateorroleplay.5.Theteacherasparticipantpromptertoencouragestudentstoparticipateormakesuggestionsabouthowtoproceedinanactivity.6.Theteacherasresource,thatisasourceoflanguageandknowledge.7.Theteacherasinstructor,actuallyteachingthenewlanguagepointsandtrainingstudentsinlanguageskills.

2.Characteristicsexhibitedbythem

Goodlanguagelearnersaremoreadaptable,creative,inventive,andmostofallindependence.TheCharacteristicsthat“good〞learnertendtoexhibit(RubinandThompson1983)1.Goodlearnersfindtheirownwayoflearningwhichworkbestforthem.2….organizedwhattheyhavelearnedthroughvarioustechniquesforeasyreference.3….arecreativeandexperiment,withlanguage.

4….maketheirownopportunities,andfindstrategiesforgettingpracticeinusingthelanguageinsideandoutsidetheclassroom.5….learntolivewithuncertaintyanddevelopstrategiesformakingsenseoftargetlanguagewithoutwantingtounderstandeveryword.6….usemnemonics(rhymes,wordassociations,etc.)torecallwhathasbeenlearned.7….learntolivewitherrorsandlearnfromerrors.

8….uselinguisticknowledge,includingknowledgeoftheirfirstlanguageinmasteringasecondlanguage.9….letthecontext(backgroundknowledge)helpthemincomprehension.10….learntomakeintelligentguesses.11….learnformalizedroutinesandchunksoflanguageasawhole(idioms,routinizedexpressions,dialogueextracts,etc.)12….learndifferentstylesofspeechandwritingandlearntovarytheirlanguageaccordingtotheformalityofthesituation.

Activity4

CommunicativeActivities

Part1Necessity,Unpredictability,andChoice

Part2ThenatureofCommunicativeActivities

Part3TypesofCommunicativeActivities

Part4InformationGapActivities

LittleWood(1981)summarizedsomeofthecontributionsthatcommunicativeactivitiescanmaketolanguagelearningunderfourheadings.TheyimprovemotivationTheyprovide“wholetaskpractice〞TheyallownaturallearningTheycancreateacontextwhichsupportslearning

Part1Necessity,Unpredictability,

andChoiceThefeaturesofgenuinecommunication:

Necessity:Thereisapurposeforonetospeaknomatterinwhatcases.

Unpredictability:Onehasnowaytopredicateinadvancewhatisgoingtohappen.

Choice:Onehasarangeoflinguisticsformstochoosefromtoachievethepurpose(thelanguagehethinksmostappropriateinthesocialsituationforthepurposes)

Example

Inwhichaman(A)speakto

awoman(B)atabusstop(p.78)Excuseme.Yes?Doyouhaveawatch?Yes…why?Iwonderifyoucouldtellmewhatthetimeis?Certainly…it`sthreeo`clock.Thankyou.Don`tmentionit.

Part2TheNatureofCommunicative

Activities

1.theCommunicativeActivities

Thestudentsreadorlistentodifferenttexts,thentheyexchangewitheachothertheinformationtheyhavegainedfromthem,Mini-researchandquestionnaires—studentswalkaroundtheclasstodoamini-investigationoncertaintopictheyareinterestedinbyaskingtheotherstudentsquestions.Studentspresenttheirownideasoropinionsoncertaintopic.Studentsspeakaccordingtotheroleassignedtotheminagivensituation.

2.Generalizations

on

thenature

ofcommunicativeactivities.

Studentsmusthaveadesiretocommunicate.Studentsshouldhavesomekindofcommunicativepurpose:inotherwordstheyshouldbeusinglanguageinsomewaytoachieveanobjective,andthisobjectiveshouldbethemostimportantpartofthecommunication.Students’attentionshouldbecenteredonthecontentofwhatisbeingsaidorwrittenandnotthelanguageforusthatisbeingused.

Studentswillhavetodealwithavarietyoflanguageratherthanjustonegrammaticalconstruction.Whilethestudentsareengagedinthecommunicativeactivitytheteachershouldnotintervene,suchastellingstudentsthattheyaremakingmistakes,insistingonaccuracyoraskingforrepetition,etc.Therearenomaterialcontrolstorestrictthestudents’choiceofwhattosayandhowtosayit.Part3TypesofCommunicative

Activities1.

FunctionalcommunicationactivitiesThemainpurposeisthatstudentsshouldusethelanguagetheyknowinordertogettheirmeaningacrossaseffectivelyaspossible.Successismeasuredprimarilyaccordingtowhethertheycopewithcommunicativedemandoftheactivity.

2.Socialinteractionactivities

Themainpurposeofanotherimportantaspectofcommunicationistheappropriateness.Thestudentsshouldhavetheabilitytotakeintoconsiderationthefunctionalmeaningofdifferentlanguageforms,andtheirsocialmeaningswell.FunctionalcommunicationactivitiesSocialinteractionactivitiesemphasis

thefunctionalaspectofcommunication

thesocialaswellasfunctionalaspectsofcommunicationaim

usethelanguagetheyknowinordertogetmeaningsacrossandeffectively1.conveymeaningseffectively;2.paygreatattentiontothesocialcontextinwhichtheinteractiontakesplacestandardforsuccesscopewiththecommunicativedemandoftheactivity1.functionaleffectivenessofthelanguage;2.theacceptabilityoftheformsthatareusedintheparticularsituationtypicalexamplesInformationgapactivitiesRole-playactivities

Part4InformationGap

ActivitiesDefinitionofInformationGapInformationgapactivitiesExamples1and2WaysofusinginformationgapactivitiesSomeSuggestionsforyouractivities1.DefinitionofInformationGapInformationgapisthatthespeakerhastheinformationwhichthelistenerdoesnotknoworthespea