《专业外语》试题题库

《专业外语》试题题库命题人：宋利芳说明：（1）本试卷分三大题型：英译汉（40分）、汉译英（20分）、写作（40分）。（2）本题库中，三大题型分别有10道题目。考试时，从三大题型中分别抽取1道题目，即可组成一套试卷。Ⅰ.TranslatethefollowingparagraphsintoChinese(40points)1.Whenspeakingofdemandforacommodity,economistsmeanthequantitywhichbuyersarewillingtopurchaseatagivenpriceoveragivenperiodoftime.Demandinaneconomicsenseonlyexistsiftheconsumershavethemoneytobuythegoodsandarewillingtopayforthem.Thisisthencalledeffectivedemand,andmeansadesiretoobtainanarticleaccompaniedbytheabilityandwillingnesstopayforitatthepriceasked.Ineconomics,whenwespeakofdemand,weareusuallyreferringtoeffectivedemand.Consumersgenerallywanttobuygoodsandservicesascheaplyastheycan,whilesellerswanttosellatthehighestpricestheycanobtain,butnotsohighastolosesales.Thefactthatbuyersarelikelytobuymoreofanitemasthepricefallsiscalledthelawofdemand.Ontheotherhand,aspricesrise,sellerswouldliketosellmoreandwill,ifitispossible,offeralargerquantityforsale.Thisiscalledthelawofsupply.GDPdataare,inpractice,usednotonlyasameasureofhowmuchisbeingproduced,butalsoasameasureofthewelfareoftheresidentsofacountry.EconomistsandpoliticianstalkasifanincreaseinrealGDPmeansthatpeoplearebetteroff.ButGDPdataarefarfromperfectmeasuresofeithereconomicoutputorwelfare.Someoutputsarepoorlymeasuredbecausetheyarenottradedinthemarket.Ifyoubakehomemadepie,thevalueofyourlaborisn’tcountedinofficialGDPstatistics.Ifyoubuya(nodoubtinferior)pie,thebaker’slaboriscounted.ThismeansthatthevastlyincreasedparticipationofwomeninlaborforcehasincreasedofficialGDPnumberswithnooffsettingreductionfordecreasedproductionathome.SomeactivitiesmeasuredasaddingtoGDPinfactrepresenttheuseofresourcestoavoidorcontain“bads”suchascrimeorriskstonationalsecurity.Similarly,theaccountsdonotsubtractanythingforenvironmentalpollutionanddegradation.Thisissueisparticularlyimportantindevelopingcountries.2.Becauseeconomistsandaccountantsmeasurecostsdifferently,theyalsomeasureprofitdifferently.Aneconomistmeasuresafirm’seconomicprofitasthefirm’stotalrevenueminusalltheopportunitycosts(explicitandimplicit)ofproducingthegoodsandservicessold.Anaccountantmeasuresthefirm’saccountingprofitasthefirm’stotalrevenueminusonlythefirm’sexplicitcosts.Noticethatbecausetheaccountantignorestheimplicitcosts,accountingprofitisusuallylargerthaneconomicprofit.Forabusinesstobeprofitablefromaneconomist’sstandpoint,totalrevenuemustcoveralltheopportunitycosts,bothexplicitandimplicit.Howwouldyouinterpretazeroeconomicprofit?Itisnotasbadasitsounds.Economistscallthisconditionnormalprofit.Normalprofitistheminimumprofitnecessarytokeepafirminoperation.Zeroeconomicprofitsignifiesthereisjustenoughtotalrevenuetopaytheownersforallexplicitandimplicitcosts.Stateddifferently,thereisnobenefitfromreallocatingresourcestoanotheruse.Fortheeconomyasawhole,ifaggregatedemandexceedsaggregate supply,therewillbepressureforpricestorise.Anincreaseinaggregatedemandcanalsoaffectcapitaloutflowasconsumersarepreparedtobuymoreimportedgoodsandservices.Whenthereisfallingdemandandrisingunemployment(recession)thenanincreaseindemandwillprobablybemetbyanincreaseinsupplybyusingidleresources.Astheeconomyreachesfull,andpassesfullemployment,thedemandforgoodsandservicesbyconsumers,businessesandgovernmentwillincreasefasterthananypossibleincreaseinproduction.Iftheincreaseinaggregatedemandisnottoorapid,producerscanexpandproductionandgraduallyovercomeshortages.Ifthereisarapidincreaseinaggregatedemand,producerswillnotbeabletomeetthedemand,andpriceswillrise.3.Anindustryisanaturalmonopolywhenasinglefirmcansupplyagoodorservicetoanentiremarketatalowercostthancouldtwoormorefirms.Anaturalmonopolyariseswhenthereareeconomiesofscaleovertherelevantrangeofoutput.Inthiscase,asinglefirmcanproduceanyamountofoutputatleastcost.Thatis,foranygivenamountofoutput,alargernumberoffirmsleadtolessoutputperfirmandhigheraveragetotalcost.Whenafirmisanaturalmonopoly,itislessconcernedaboutnewentrantserodingitsmonopolypower.Normally,afirmhastroublemaintainingamonopolypositionwithoutownershipofakeyresourceorprotectionfromthegovernment.Themonopolist’sprofitattractsentrantsintothemarket,andtheseentrantsmakethemarketmorecompetitive.Bycontrast,enteringamarketinwhichanotherfirmhasanaturalmonopolyisunattractive.Would-beentrantsknowthattheycannotachievethesamelowcoststhatthemonopolistenjoysbecause,afterentry,eachfirmwouldhaveasmallerpieceofthemarket.Iftherewerenogovernmentrules,bankswouldprobablykeeponlyasmallfractionoftheirdepositsintheformofreserves.Infact,Americanbanksaretodayrequiredtokeepsubstantiallymorereservesthanarenecessaryformeetingcustomers’needs.TheselegalreserverequirementsareacrucialpartofthemechanismbywhichtheFed(theU.S.’scentralbank)controlsthesupplyofbankmoney.Legalreserverequirementsaresethighinordertoallowthecentralbanktocontrolthemoneysupply.Reserverequirementshelpthecentralbankconductitsopen-marketoperationsbyensuringastabledemandforreserves.Bysettingreserverequirementsabovethelevelthatbanksdesire,thecentralbankcandeterminethelevelofreservesandcantherebycontrolthemoneysupplymoreprecisely.TheneteffectisanincreaseintheFederalReserve’scontrolovershort-terminterestrates.4.Afirmisamonopolyifitisthesolesellerofitsproductandifitsproductdoesnothaveclosesubstitutes.Thefundamentalcauseofmonopolyisbarrierstoentry:Amonopolyremainstheonlysellerinitsmarketbecauseotherfirmscannotenterthemarketandcompetewithit.Barrierstoentry,inturn,havethreemainsources:Akeyresourceisownedbyasinglefirm;Thegovernmentgivesasinglefirmtheexclusiverighttoproducesomegoodorservice;Thecostsofproductionmakeasingleproducermoreefficientthanalargenumberofproducers.Monopolies,incontrasttocompetitivemarkets,failtoallocateresourcesefficiently.Monopoliesproducelessthanthesociallydesirablequantityofoutputand,asaresult,chargepricesabovemarginalcost.Policymakersinthegovernmentcanrespondtotheproblemofmonopolyinoneoffourways:Bytryingtomakemonopolizedindustriesmorecompetitive;Byregulatingthebehaviorofthemonopolies;Byturningsomeprivatemonopoliesintopublicenterprises;Bydoingnothingatall.Pollutionoftheenvironmenttakesseveralwell-knownforms:(1)Airpollution.Thisisthedischargeofnoxiousgasesandsolidparticlesintotheatmosphere,leadingto“smog”conditionsinmanymetropolitanareas.Automobilesandtrucksarethemainsourceofthisproblem;bututilitygeneratingplants,steelmills,chemicalfactories,papermills,andothermanufacturingestablishmentscontributetoit.(2)Waterpollution.Thistypeofpollutionarisesfromdischargeoforganicandinorganicwastesintostreamsandlakes.Thesedischargescomemainlyfromindustrialestablishments;butdischargeofinadequatelytreatedseweragefrommunicipalseweragesystemsisanimportantpartoftheproblem.(3)Accumulationofsolidwastes.Theautomobilejunkyardisthemostconspicuousexample.Buteveryyearconsumersdiscardhundredsofmillionsoftonsofcans,bottles,andothertrashthatformagrowingproblemforcitywastedisposalsystems.5.Mutualinterdependenceamongfirmsinanoligopolymakesthismarketstructuremoredifficulttoanalyzethanperfectcompetition,monopoly,ormonopolisticcompetition.Theprice-outputdecisionofanoligopolistisnotsimplyamatterofchargingthepricewhereMR=MC.Makingpriceandoutputdecisionsinanoligopolyislikeplayingagameofchess.Oneplayer’smovedependsontheanticipatedreactionsoftheopposingplayer.Likewise,afirminanoligopolycanmakemanydifferentpossiblereactionstotheprice,nonprice,andoutputchangesofanotherfirm.Consequently,therearedifferentoligopolymodelsbecausenosinglemodelcancoverallcases.Therearethefollowingfourwell-knownoligopolymodels:nonpricecompetition,thekinkeddemandcurve,priceleadership,andthecartel.Inflationre-distributesincomesfromthosewhosavetothosewhoborrow.Thosewhosaveare“punished.”Peoplewhohaveassetsfindthatthesewillincreaseinvaluewithinflation.Poorerpeoplearemorelikelytohavecashwhichlosesitsvalueininflationarytimes.Itisthegovernmentthatprofitsmostfrominflationsincethegovernmentistheheaviestborrowerofmoneyintheeconomy.Notonlyistherealvalueofthegovernmentdebtdecreasing,butthegovernmentalsobenefitsfromtheadditionalrevenuesfromhighertaxes.Inflationcanleadtoseriousunemployment.Inflationdirectsinvestmentintolandandproperty,astheseincreaseinvaluerapidly.Thistypeofinvestmentreducestheopportunitiestoexpandoutputandthereforeproductivityasthereislittleinvestmentincapitalgoods(machineryandequipment)andnewtechnology.Inflationharmsexportsasthesegoodsandservicesarenowmoreexpensiveinoverseasmarkets.Inaddition,importsarecheapersothatlocalbusinessesfaceincreasedcompetition.6.Let’sassumesomelikelychangesthatoccurifaperfectlycompetitiveindustryissuddenlyturnedintoanoligopolysellingadifferentiatedproduct.First,thepricechargedfortheproductwillbehigherthanunderperfectcompetition.Thesmallerthenumberoffirmsinanoligopolyandthemoredifficultitistoentertheindustry,thehighertheoligopolypricewillbeincomparisontotheperfectlycompetitiveprice.Second,anoligopolyislikelytospendmoneyonadvertising,productdifferentiation,andotherformsofnonpricecompetition.Theseexpenditurescanshiftthedemandcurvetotheright.Asaresult,bothpriceandoutputmaybehigherunderoligopolythanunderperfectcompetition.Third,inthelongrun,aperfectlycompetitivefirmearnszeroeconomicprofit.Theoligopolist,however,canearnahigherprofitbecauseitismoredifficultforcompetitorstoentertheindustry.Thefunctionsofmoneyareasfollows:(1)Mediumofexchange.Thefunctionofmoneywithwhichweareallfamiliaristhatofactingasamediumofexchange.Moneyallowspeopletoavoidtheproblemofthebartersystembyremovingtheneedfortwopeopletofindeachotherwhenbothwanttoexchangetheirgoodsforthoseoftheother.(2)Storeofvalue.Moneycanbestoredandspentlateron.Unlikestocksofgoods,moneydoesnotphysicallydeterioratewhenstored,althoughitcanloseitsvalueifpricesarerisingrapidly.Ifpricesremainstable,moneyisagoodstoreofvaluebecauseitisaliquidasset.(3)Measureofvalue.Moneyisaconvenientwaytomeasurethevalueofgoods.Ifeverythinghasaprice,peoplecancomparethepriceofonegoodwithanother,andreadilymakechoicesonwhichtheywanttobuy.(4)Standardofdeferredpayment.Ifwesellgoodsandservicesandexpecttobepaidatsomefuturedate,wemusthaveanagreedstandardaccordingtowhichthepaymentsaretobemade.Deferredpaymentmeansthatpaymentistobemadeatalaterdate,orbyinstallmentsoveraperiodoftime.7.Becauseoftheimportanceofforeignexchangerates,governmentspayagreatdealofattentiontowhatishappeninginforeignexchangemarketsand,morethanthat,takeactionsdesignedtoachievewhattheyregardasdesirablemovementsinexchangerates.Therearethreewaysinwhichthegovernment—ormorepreciselytheBankofEnglandonbehalfofthegovernment—canoperateintheforeignexchangemarket.Sotherearethreepossibleforeignexchangemarketregimes.Underafixedexchangerateregime,thevalueofthepoundwouldbepeggedbytheBankofEngland.Underaflexibleexchangerateregime,thevalueofthepoundwouldbedeterminedbymarketforceswithnointerventionbytheBankofEngland.Underamanagedexchangerateregime,theBankofEnglandwouldinterveneintheforeignexchangemarkettosmoothoutfluctuationsinthevalueofthepoundbutitwouldnotseektomaintainthepoundatanabsolutelyconstantvalueforalongperiodoftime.Thesizeandtypeofpopulationofaneconomyisimportantfortwomainreasons:(1)Asamarketforgoodsandservices.Allmembersofthepopulationareconsumersinsomeformorother,andthenumberofconsumerswhomustsharethefoodsandservicesavailablehasprofoundeffectsontheindividual’sstandardoflivingandontheeconomyitself.(2)Thepopulationprovidesthemembersoftheworkforce.Theworkforceisonlyapartofthetotalpopulation.Combinedwithotherresources,theworkforceproducesmostofthegoodsandservicesrequiredbytheentirepopulation.Toalargeextent,thesizeofthepopulationaffectsthesizeoftheworkforce.Thelargertheavailableworkforcethegreaterthepotentialforproduction,butitisnotnumbersalonewhichmakeforanefficientandeffectiveworkforce.Thelargerthepopulationthegreaterthenumberofconsumers,whichusuallymeansthatalargerworkforceisneededinordertosupplytheirneeds.8.Severaleconomicforcesmayhaveanimpactonthebalanceofpaymentsofaspecificnation.Inflationmayleadtopricelevelincreases,whichmakedomesticgoodsandservicesrelativelytooexpensivefornondomesticbuyers.Exportswillbecomelesscompetitiveandimportswillbecomemoreattractivetodomesticconsumers.Asexportsdeclineandimportsrise,thebalanceoftradesectorinthebalanceofpaymentsmaybecomenegative,andifthistradedeficitisnotbalancedbycapitalflows,thebasicbalanceofthebalanceofpaymentsmaybeindeficit.HigherGNPpushespersonalincomeupandifconsumershaveahighpropensitytoimportbecauseofrelativelyhigherincomes,importsmayincreasefasterthanexport,causingadampeningeffectonthebalanceofpayments.Interestratesinfluenceforeigninvestmentsinmoneyandcapitalmarketinstrumentsinagivencountry.Whenrealinterestratesdeclineinacountry,capitaloutflowsoccurandthebasicbalancedeficitmayincrease.TheWTOissometimesdescribedasa“freetrade”institution,butthatisnotentirelyaccurate.Thesystemdoesallowtariffsand,inlimitedcircumstances,otherformsofprotection.Moreaccurately,itisasystemofrulesdedicatedtoopen,fairandundistortedcompetition.Therulesonnon-discriminationaredesignedtosecurefairconditionsoftrade.Sotooarethoseondumpingandsubsidies.Theissuesarecomplex,andtherulestrytoestablishwhatisfairorunfair,andhowgovernmentscanrespond,inparticularbychargingadditionalimportdutiescalculatedtocompensatefordamagecausedbyunfairtrade.ManyoftheotherWTOagreementsaimtosupportfaircompetition:inagriculture,intellectualproperty,services,forexample.Theagreementongovernmentprocurementextendscompetitionrulestopurchasesbythousandsofgovernmententitiesinmanycountries.9.Theprivatecostsofafirmarethesumoftheexplicitandimplicitcoststhatitincurs.Thesocialcostsofafirmarethosethatsocietyingeneralbearsbecauseofthefirm’sactivities.Socialcostswouldincludetheprivatecostsofafirm,sincepresumablyallofthefirm’sresourcescouldbeusedelsewhereinproducinggoodsofvalueto(atleastsomemembersof)society.However,socialcostswouldalsoincludecostspaidforbysocietybutnotbythefirm,eventhoughsuchcostswerearesultofproductionbythefirm.Examplesmightincludeair,water,andnoisepollution.Afirmcould,inaddition,generatenegativesocialcosts(socialbenefits)suchasthebeautyofawell-keptgolfcourseandtheresultantincreaseinthevaluesofsurroundingproperties.Mostpeoplewouldbepleasedthatanexclusivecountryclubhaddecidedtolocateneartheirproperty—eveniftheywantedonlytosellthatpropertyforaprofit.Socialcostsareimportantconsiderationsineconomicdecisionmakingandlawmakingbysocietyingeneral.Astherealitiesofglobalinterdependenceslowlypenetratethepoliticalperceptionsofdeveloped-nationgovernments,andperhapseventuallytheirpopulacesaswell,itmayleadtotherealizationthattheirreallong-runeconomicandpoliticalinterestsinfactliewiththeachievementofbroad-baseddevelopmentinThirdWorldnations.Eliminatingpoverty,minimizinginequality,promotingenvironmentallysustainabledevelopment,andraisinglevelsoflivingforthemassesofLDCpeoplesmayturnouttobeinthemostfundamentalself-interestofdevelopednations.Thisisnotbecauseofanyhumanitarianidealsbutsimplybecauseinthelongrun,therecanbenodualfuturesforhumankind,onefortheveryrichandanotherfortheverypoor,withouttheproliferationofglobalorregionalconflict.Enlightenedself-interestmaythereforebetheonlypegonwhichtohangthehopefora“newinternationaleconomicorder”inwhichbothforeignassistanceandprivateinvestmentcanbegintomakearealandlastingcontributiontoThirdWorlddevelopment. 10.Besidestheuseoftariffstodistortthefree-tradeallocationofresources,governmentpolicymakershavebecomeveryadeptatusingother,lessvisible,formsoftradebarriers.Theseareusuallycallednontariffbarriers(NTBs)totrade,andtheyhavebecomemoreprominentinrecentyears.Subsidiestodomesticfirmshavedirectimplicationsfortrade.Althoughaparticularsubsidymaynotbeintendedtoaffecttrade,asubsidythatreducesafirm’scostmaystimulateexports.Inthecaseofanimport-competingfirm,theloweringofafirm’sowncoststhroughgovernmentsubsidiescanmakethedomesticfirmmorecost-competitive,leadingtoanexpansionofoutputandemploymentandareductioninimports.Similarly,government-providedmanagerialassistance,retrainingprograms,R&Dfinancing,investmenttaxcreditsorspecialtaxbenefitstodomesticfirmsthatareproducingtradedgoodscanhaveadirectimpactonrelativecostcompetitivenessandinternationaltrade.Whilethereareafewdifferentconceptualizationsofglobalization,researchersseemtobeinagreementthatthereareatleasttwodimensionsofglobalization:economicandpolitical.Theeconomicaspectsofglobalizationstemfromthespreadofthecapitalistworldeconomyandtheresultingexpansionofgeographicalboundariesfortheproductionandconsumptionofgoodsandservices.Theneedforcheaprawmaterials,cheaplaborandnewmarketssawtheexpansionofthecapitalistworldeconomyfromonethatwasprimarilyEurocentrictoonethatencompassedtheentireworld.Thepoliticalaspectsofglobalizationinvolvedestablishingcontrolovermarketsandrawmaterialsthrougheithertheuseofdirectmilitarypowerortheestablishmentofinternationalinstitutions(throughdiplomacy)thatcontrolsuchmarkets.Theriseofthenation-stateisanexampleofthepoliticalaspectofglobalization.Ⅱ.TranslatethefollowingparagraphintoEnglish(20points)1.1995-2016年间，中国成为澳大利亚反倾销的首要目标国，同时，澳对华反倾销和反补贴调查案件日趋增多，钢铁产品则是澳对华反倾销的第一大目标产品。为有效应对未来澳对华反倾销，中国应在中澳自贸协定升级谈判中，力争加入限制乃至互不适用反倾销条款，同时要积极应诉，重视和遏制澳对华反倾销和反补贴调查，并扩大对澳工业制成品行业的直接投资。2.自20世纪90年代末期以来，随着中国对美国贸易顺差的迅速扩大，中美贸易摩擦也呈日益加剧的态势。面对两国间的贸易摩擦，并不意味着人民币应当大幅度升值。相反，美国应加速经济结构调整，改变其扩张性财政政策，提高储蓄率；中国则应采取切实的政策措施，以扩大内需，并努力提高创新能力。只有这样，中美经贸关系才能得到进一步的改善和发展。3．20世纪90年代以来，经济全球化迅速发展并日益成为世界经济发展的新趋势。虽然经济全球化促进了世界各国的生产、贸易和投资，但是发展中国家与发达国家之间的经济差距不但没有缩小，反而进一步扩大了。因此，对发展中国家而言，经济全球化既是机遇，又是挑战。发展中国家应当调整发展战略，加快改革开放进程，以实现经济的快速增长与发展。4.根据《关于建立世界贸易组织的协定》，世界贸易组织的的目标如下：提高生活水平；保证充分就业以及实际收入与有效需求的大幅度稳定增长；扩大商品与服务的生产和贸易；允许根据可持续发展目标合理地利用世界资源；保证发展中国家，特别是它们中间的最不发达国家在国际贸易增长中获得与他们的经济发展需要相适应的份额。5.科学技术、创新与经济发展之间有着密切联系。创新是经济发展的核心驱动力，当代世界的竞争实质上是科技实力的竞争。科学技术是第一生产力，世界经济的演进已使科学技术成为影响经济发展的关键因素。广大发展中国家之所以长期落后，其主要原因之一就是科技落后并缺乏有效的国家创新体系。因此，发展中国家应当采取措施，大力发展科学技术，积极鼓励创新，以促进经济发展。6.“一带一路”是指“丝绸之路经济带”和“21世纪海上丝绸之路”,是中国为推动经济全球化深入发展而提出的国际区域经济合作新模式。其核心目标是促进经济要素有序自由流动、资源高效配置和市场深度融合,推动开展更大范围、更高水平、更深层次的区域合作。“一带一路”框架下的合作重点包括五个方面，即政策沟通、设施联通、贸易畅通、资金融通和民心相通。7.在经济发展的初级阶段，大多数