简明英语语言学习知识教学教育课程教案文本记录材料

,.戴版语言学ChapterOne----Introduction精品文档放心下载Partone----Whatislinguistics?谢谢阅读Definition----linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Scientificmeansitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.感谢阅读NoArticlebeforelanguageinthisdefinitionmeansthatlinguisticsstudieslanguageingeneral.谢谢阅读Linguists’task:basicallystudyandunderstandthegeneralprinciplesuponwhichalllanguagesarebuilt.精品文档放心下载Interestoflinguistsis“whatissaid”感谢阅读ThescopesoflinguisticsGenerallinguistics----thestudyoflanguageasawhole-----thecoreoflinguistics精品文档放心下载Phonetics----thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticcommunication.精品文档放心下载Phonology----thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconvey谢谢阅读meaningsincommunication.精品文档放心下载Morphology----thestudyofthewayinwhichthesymbolsarearrangedand谢谢阅读combinedtoformwords.Syntax-----thestudyoftherulesforsentenceformation感谢阅读Semantics-----thestudyofmeaning.精品文档放心下载Pragmatics----thestudyofmeaninginthecontextoflanguageuse.精品文档放心下载,.Abovearemadeupofthecoreoflinguistics精品文档放心下载Sociolinguistics-----thestudyofallsocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwith谢谢阅读societyfromthecoreofthebranch.谢谢阅读Psycholinguistics-----thestudy of languageprocessing,comprehendingand谢谢阅读production,aswellaslanguageacquisition.感谢阅读Appliedlinguistics-----theapplicationoflinguistictheoriesandprinciplesto谢谢阅读languageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.谢谢阅读Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics.谢谢阅读(1)prescriptivevs.descriptive谢谢阅读prescriptive----thelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctandstandard”behaviorinusinglanguage,i.e.totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay.感谢阅读Descriptive----thelinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.感谢阅读Modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptive.感谢阅读(2)Synchronicvs.diachronic谢谢阅读Synchronic----thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistory.Diachronic----thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime----thehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime----anothername:historicallinguistics.精品文档放心下载Asynchronicapproachenjoyspriorityoveradiachronicone.精品文档放心下载(3)Speechvs.writing,.Twomajormediaoflinguisticcommunication精品文档放心下载Speechispriortowriting:谢谢阅读(1)writingsystemisalways“invented”byitsuserstorecordspeech.精品文档放心下载(2)speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingininformationconveyance.精品文档放心下载(3)speechisacquiredasmothertonguewhilewritingislearnedandtaught.精品文档放心下载(4)speechrevealstruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewritinglanguageisonlythe谢谢阅读“revised”recordofspeech.感谢阅读(4)Languevs.paroleProposedbySwisslinguist----F.deSaussure----sociologicalview.精品文档放心下载Purpose:discovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmake精品文档放心下载themthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.感谢阅读Langue----theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofsspeech精品文档放心下载community.----abstract&stable.谢谢阅读Parole-----therealizationoflanguageinactualuse----concrete&varied精品文档放心下载(5)Competencevs.performance精品文档放心下载ProposedbyAmericanlinguistNoamChomsky----psychologicalview谢谢阅读Purpose:discoverandspecifytheinternalizedsetsofrules.感谢阅读Competence----theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.精品文档放心下载Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic谢谢阅读communication.(6)Traditionalgrammarandmodernlinguistics谢谢阅读Thebeginningofmodernlinguistics--thepublicationofSaussure’s“Coursein精品文档放心下载,.GeneralLinguistics”inearly20th精品文档放心下载Modernlinguisticsdifferstraditionalgrammar:谢谢阅读descriptivevs.prescriptive.谢谢阅读spokenlanguagevs.writtenlanguage.感谢阅读(3)MLdoesn’tforcelanguagesintoaLatin-basedframework.感谢阅读PartTwo----Whatislanguage?精品文档放心下载Definition----languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.谢谢阅读System----elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.精品文档放心下载Arbitrary----thereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatsymbolstandsfor.谢谢阅读Vocal----theprimarymediumforalllanguageissound.Human----languageishuman-specific.感谢阅读Designfeatures----proposedbyAmericanlinguistCharlesHockett.(5/12)感谢阅读Designfeatures:thedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfrom感谢阅读anyanimalsystemofcommunication-----human-specific.谢谢阅读Arbitrariness----thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Exceptions:Onomatopoeicwordsandsomecompoundwordsarenotentirearbitrary.感谢阅读Productivity----languageiscreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers----userscanproduceandunderstandsentencesthattheyhaveneverheardbefore.谢谢阅读,.Duality----(anothername:doublearticulation.)Languageisasystemwhichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Thelowerleveristhestructureofmeaninglesssoundsandthehigherlevelisthestructureofmeaning.----sound&meaning感谢阅读Displacement----languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,inafarawayplaces------Itdoesn’tmatterhowfarawaythetopicisofconversationisintimeorspace-----freefromthebarrierscausedbyseparationintimeandplace.感谢阅读Culturaltransmission----thecapacityforlanguageisgeneticallybasedwhilethedetailsofandlanguagesystemshouldbetaughtandlearned.-----languageispasseddownfromonegenerationtothenextthroughteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.精品文档放心下载3.Thefunctionsoflanguage.感谢阅读Informative:Themainfunctionoflanguagethatwhenpeopleuselanguagetocommunicatewitheachother,theirexperienceintherealworld,recordordescribethe“content”ofthereality,theyareactuallytakingadvantageofthisfunction.----themostimportantfunction.精品文档放心下载Interpersonal:peopleestablishandmaintaintheiridentityinthesocietybythisfunction.感谢阅读Performative:thisisafunctionwherebythelanguageinfluencesdirectlyonthereality,suchasthesentenceofimprisonmentbythejudge,thenamingofacertainshipandthecursesasbelievedbytheancientpeople.谢谢阅读,.Emotive:thisfunctionisperformedbythoselinguisticelementsusedtoexpressstrongfeelings,suchasexclamatoryexpressions.感谢阅读Phatic:thisisfunctionrealizedbythose“Phaticlanguage”,aimingtoestablishingaharmoniousandintimaterelationshipamongpeople.ExamplesinChinese:吃了没？inEnglish:Goodnorning.&Aniceday,isn’tit?感谢阅读Recreational:Thisfunctionmeansthatsometimespeoplemayenjoylanguageforlanguage’ssake,i.e.nousinglanguageinanypracticalpurposes,suchastongue-twistersandchildren’sbabblesandchanter’schanting.感谢阅读Metalingual:peoplemayuselanguagetotalkabout,explainorevenchangelanguageitself.Thisisthemetalingualfunctionoflanguage.Forexample,wemayuse“book”torefertotheexistingobjectintherealworld,andyetmayalsouse“thewordbook”tostandbytheconcept“book”asembodiedinlanguage.感谢阅读Chapter2:PhonologyPartOne:ThephonicMediumofLanguage谢谢阅读Linguistsconcernonlywiththesoundsthatareproducedbyhumansthroughtheir精品文档放心下载speechorgansandhavearoletoplayinlinguisticcommunication.精品文档放心下载phonicmedium:Themeaningfulspeechsoundinhumancommunication.感谢阅读Speechsounds:theindividualsoundswithinphonicmediumarethespeech感谢阅读sounds.PartTwo:Phonetics,.1.Whatisphonetics?phonetics:Thestudyofphonicmediumoflanguageanditisconcernedwithall精品文档放心下载soundsintheworld’slanguages.谢谢阅读Classification:articulatoryphonetics:Itstudiessoundsfromthespeaker’spointofview,i.e.how谢谢阅读aspeakeruseshisspeechorganstoarticulatethesounds.-------speaker谢谢阅读auditoryphonetics:Thestudiessoundsfromthehearer’spointofview,i.e.howthe精品文档放心下载soundsareperceivedbythehearer.-----hearer谢谢阅读acousticphonetics:Itstudiesthewaysoundstravelbylookingatthesoundwaves,精品文档放心下载thephysicalmeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromone感谢阅读persontoanother.-----physicalproperties谢谢阅读2.OrgansofSpeech1thepharyngealcavity----throat.精品文档放心下载2theoralcavity-------------mouth.------tongue:mostflexible.感谢阅读3thenasalcavity-----------nose.InEnglish,therearethreenasalsounds,namely,精品文档放心下载[m],[n],[η].voicing:thewaythatsoundsareproducedwiththevibrationofthevocalcords.精品文档放心下载voiceless:thewaythatsoundsareproducedwithnovibrationofthevocalcords.感谢阅读Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds----broadandnarrowtranscriptions.谢谢阅读IPA:shortforInternationalPhoneticAlphabets,asystemofsymbolsconsistsof精品文档放心下载,.lettersanddiacritics,usedtorepresentthepronunciationofwordsinanylanguage.谢谢阅读broadtranscription:Theuseoflettersymbolsonlytoshowthesoundsorsounds谢谢阅读sequencesinwrittenform.精品文档放心下载narrowtranscription:Theuseoflettersymbol,togetherwiththediacriticstoshow谢谢阅读soundsinwrittenform.diacritics:Thesymbolsusedinthenarrowtranscriptiontoshowdetailed谢谢阅读articulatoryfeaturesofsounds.感谢阅读aspiration:Alittlepuffofairthatsometimesfollowsaspeechsound.谢谢阅读ClassificationofEnglishSpeechSoundsClassification:精品文档放心下载consonant:aspeechsoundinwhichtheairstreamisobstructedinonewayoranother.谢谢阅读vowel:aspeechsoundinwhichtheairstreamfromthelungmeetswithnoobstruction.精品文档放心下载ClassificationofEnglishconsonants:精品文档放心下载Mannerofarticulation:Themannerinwhichobstructioniscreated.Stops:[p],[b],[t],[d],[k],[g].感谢阅读Fricatives:[f],[v],[s],[z],[θ],[],[∫][3],[h].感谢阅读Affricates:[t∫],[d3]Liquids:[l],[r].Nasals:[m],[n],[η]Glides:[w],[j].------semi-vowels谢谢阅读,.2placeofarticulation:Theplacewhereobstructioniscreated.精品文档放心下载Bilabial:[p],[b],[m],[w].谢谢阅读Labiodental:[f],[v]Dental:[θ],[]Alveolar:[t],[d],[s],[z],[n],[l],[r]谢谢阅读Palatal:[∫][3],[t∫],[d3],[j].谢谢阅读Velar:[k],[g],[η]Glottal:[h].Mannerofarticulation,placeofarticulationandvoicing/voicelesshelpdescribea精品文档放心下载consonant.2ClassificationofEnglishVowels.谢谢阅读1thepositionofthetongue:感谢阅读front:[i:],[i],[e],[ε],[æ],[a]感谢阅读central:[з:],[з],[/\]back:[u:],[u],[o],[o:],[a:]感谢阅读2theopennessofthemouth.谢谢阅读Closevowels:[i:],[i],[u:],[u],感谢阅读Semi-close:[e],[з:]Semi-open:[з],[o:]Openvowels:[æ],[a],[/\],[o],[a:]谢谢阅读3shapeofthelips:unrounded:[i:],[i],[e],[ε],[æ],[a],[з:],[з],[/\],[a:]感谢阅读,.rounded:[u:],[u],[o],[o:].谢谢阅读4lengthofthesound:longvowels:[i:],[з:],[u:],[o:],[a:]谢谢阅读shortvowels:[i],[e],[ε],[æ],[a],[з],[/\],[u],[o].谢谢阅读5monophthong:theindividualvowel.-----abovevowelsareallmonophthongs.精品文档放心下载diphthong:Thevowelwhichconsistsoftwoindividualvowels,andfunctionsasa谢谢阅读singleone.[ei],[ai],[oi],[iз],[au],[зu],[eз],[uз]----eightdiphthongs.精品文档放心下载PartThree:Phonology1.PhonologyandPhonetics谢谢阅读phonetics:Thestudyofphonicmediumoflanguageanditisconcernedwithall感谢阅读soundsintheworld’slanguages.谢谢阅读phonology:Thedescriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhow感谢阅读soundsfunctiontodistinguishmeaning.精品文档放心下载Similarity:allconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage----thespeechsounds.精品文档放心下载Differences:approachandfocus.精品文档放心下载1Phoneticsisofageneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinall精品文档放心下载humanlanguages-----howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,感谢阅读whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycanbeclassified.感谢阅读2Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguagefrompatternsand感谢阅读howthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.精品文档放心下载E.g.allophonesclear[l]anddark[l]:精品文档放心下载,.Phoneticallyspeaking,theyareinterestedinthedifferenceshowtheyare感谢阅读pronounced.Phonologicallyspeaking,theyarethesameinfunctioningconveyanceofthe精品文档放心下载meanings.2.Phone,Phoneme,andAllophone精品文档放心下载phone:Thespeechsoundweusewhenspeakingalanguage,whichdoesnot精品文档放心下载necessarilydistinguishmeaningintheEnglishlanguage.感谢阅读phoneme:Thesmallestunitofsoundinalanguagewhichcandistinguishtwo谢谢阅读sounds.allophone:anydifferentformsofthesamephonemeindifferentphonetic感谢阅读environments,e.g.clear[l]anddark[l]ofthesame[l],aspirated[p]andunaspirated感谢阅读[p]ofthesame[p]indifferentphoneticenvironments.精品文档放心下载3.Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpair精品文档放心下载phonemiccontrast:twosimilarsoundsoccurinthesameenvironmentand谢谢阅读distinguishmeaning.E.g.[b]in[bit]and[p]in[pit]formphonemiccontrast.精品文档放心下载complementarydistribution:allophonesofthesamephonemeandtheydon’t感谢阅读distinguishmeaningbutcomplementeachotherindistribution.E.g.clear[l]and感谢阅读dark[l]respectivelyinthepronunciationoflightandfeel.精品文档放心下载minimalpair:twodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptonesoundand感谢阅读occursinthesameposition.Thetwosoundsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.E.g.bat感谢阅读andbetareaminimalpair.谢谢阅读4.SomeRulesinPhonology感谢阅读,.1sequentialrules:Therulestogovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticular谢谢阅读language.2assimilationrule:Theruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherbycopyingafeature感谢阅读ofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.感谢阅读3deletionrule:Therulethatasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographically谢谢阅读represented.5.SuprasegmentalFeatures----stress,tone,intonation精品文档放心下载suprasegmentalfeatures:Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthe谢谢阅读segments----syllable,word,sentencearecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures,which感谢阅读includestress,toneandintonation.感谢阅读1Stress:Classification:wordstress&sentencestress.精品文档放心下载WordStress:1ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning.谢谢阅读Ashiftofstressmaychangethepartofspeechofawordfromanountoaverb精品文档放心下载althoughitsspellingremainsunchanged.E.g.‘impott(n)----im’port(v),‘record感谢阅读(n)-----re’cord(v)‘blackbird(compound)-----‘black‘bird(noncompound)谢谢阅读2Themeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthe谢谢阅读combinations of – ing forms and nouns. E.g. ’ dining谢谢阅读room(compound)----sleeping’baby(noncompound)谢谢阅读SentenceStress:,.Sentencestress:Itreferstotherelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofa精品文档放心下载sentence.hepartsofspeechthatarenormallystressedinanEnglishsentenceare:N,V,Adj.,感谢阅读Adv.,Numerals,demonstrativepronouns.E.g.Heisdrivingmycar.------Hedrive,精品文档放心下载my,car.2Tone:tone:Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibration谢谢阅读ofthevocalcords.Tone(pitchvariation)candistinguishmeaninginsuchlanguagesasChinese,but精品文档放心下载Englishisnotatonelanguage.谢谢阅读3Intonation:intonation:Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentencerather感谢阅读thanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.谢谢阅读Intonationplaysaveryimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmost谢谢阅读everylanguage,especiallyinalanguagelikeEnglish.------fourbasictypesof谢谢阅读intonation,namely,thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-rise tone,the精品文档放心下载rise-falltone.Thefallingtone------whatissaidisastraightforward,matter-of-factstatement.谢谢阅读Therisingtone-------makeaquestionofwhatissaid.精品文档放心下载Thefall-risetone----indicatethatthereisanimpliedmessageinwhatissaid.精品文档放心下载,.Chapter3:MorphologyPartOne:Morphology1.Openclassandclosedclass谢谢阅读openclass:Agroupofwords,whichcontainsanunlimitednumberofitems,and感谢阅读newwordscanbeaddedtoit.----contentwords.E.g.beatnik:amemberoftheBeat感谢阅读generation,orapersonwhorejectsoravoidsconventionalbehaviour.感谢阅读closedclass:Arelativelyfewwords,includingconjunctions,prepositionsand精品文档放心下载pronouns,andnewwordsarenotusuallyaddedtothem.------functionwords.感谢阅读2.Internalstructureifwordsandrulesforwordformation感谢阅读morphology:Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsand谢谢阅读rulesforwordformation.PartTwo:Morphemes----theminimalunitsofmeaning精品文档放心下载morpheme:Thesmallestunitofmeaningofalanguage.Itcannotbedivided谢谢阅读withoutalteringordestroyingitsmeaning.谢谢阅读boundmorpheme:Morphemethatcannotbeusedalone,anditmustbe感谢阅读combinedwitothers.E.g.–ment.谢谢阅读freemorpheme:amorphemethatcanstandaloneasaword.谢谢阅读affix:aletteroragroupofletter,whichisaddedtoaword,andwhichchangesthe谢谢阅读meaningorfunctionoftheword,includingprefix,infixandsuffix.感谢阅读suffix:Theaffix,whichisaddedtotheendofaword,andwhichusuallychangesthe谢谢阅读partofspeechofaword.prefix:Theaffix,whichisaddedtothebeginningofaword,andwhichusually谢谢阅读,.changesthemeaningofawordtoitsopposite.谢谢阅读Partthree:Derivationalandinflectionalmorphemes感谢阅读derivationalmorpheme:Boundmorpheme,whichcanbeaddedtoastemtoforma感谢阅读newword.inflectionalmorpheme:Akindofmorpheme,whichareusedtomakegrammatical精品文档放心下载categories,suchasnumber,tenseandcase.E.g.–edand–ingendingsare精品文档放心下载inflectionalmorphemes.inflection:themorphologicalprocesswhichadjustswordsbygrammatical谢谢阅读modification,e.g.inTherainscame,rainisinflectedforpluralityandcameforpast谢谢阅读tense.PartFour:Morphologicalrulesofwordformation精品文档放心下载morphologicalrules:Thewayswordsareformed.Theserulesdeterminehow谢谢阅读morphemescombinetoformwords.精品文档放心下载PartFiveCompoundscompoundwords:Acombinationoftwoormorewords,whichfunctionsasasingle精品文档放心下载wordthenoteworthy:1Whentwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory,thecompoundwillbein谢谢阅读thiscategory:E.g.postbox,landlady(n+n=n),blue-black,icy-cold(adj.+adj.=adj.)精品文档放心下载2Inmanycases,thetwowordsfallintodifferentcategories,thentheclassof谢谢阅读secondorfinalwordwillbethegrammaticalcategoryifthecompound.谢谢阅读,.E.g.under‘take(v),in’action(n),up’lift(v)精品文档放心下载3Itisoftenthecasethatcompoundshavedifferentstresspatternsfromthe感谢阅读noncompoundedwordsequence.精品文档放心下载E.g.‘redcoat,‘greenhousearecompounds,butredcoatandgreenhousearenot.精品文档放心下载4Themeaningofacompoundisnotalwaysthesumofthemeaningsofitsparts.谢谢阅读E.g.bigwig,highbrow,jack-in-a-box,turncoat感谢阅读Conclusion:Morphologicalrulesrevealtherelationsbetweenwordsandprovide谢谢阅读themeansforformingnewwords.Itistheserulesthatenableustocoinnewwords.精品文档放心下载Compoundingisaverycommonandfrequentprocessforenlargingthevocabulary精品文档放心下载oftheEnglishlanguage.Chapter4:SyntaxPartOne:WhatisSyntax?syntax:Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoform谢谢阅读sentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.精品文档放心下载PartTwo:Categories1.Word-levelcategoriescategory:Itreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilar谢谢阅读functionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.精品文档放心下载syntacticcategories:Wordscanbegroupedtogetherintoarelativelysmallnumber感谢阅读ofclasses,calledsyntacticcategories.谢谢阅读,.Majorlexicalcategories:(asheads)N,V,A,P精品文档放心下载Word-levelcategoriesMinorlexicalcategories:det.Deg.Qua.Aux.con.谢谢阅读majorlexicalcategory:onetypeofwordlevelcategories,whichoftenassumedto精品文档放心下载betheheadsaroundwhichphrasesarebuilt,includingN,V,Adj,andPrep.感谢阅读minorlexicalcategory:onetypeofwordlevelcategories,whichhelpsormodifies谢谢阅读majorlexicalcategory.Threecriteriatodetermineaword’scategory?精品文档放心下载1Meaning:1Wordcategoriesoftenbearsomerelationshipwithitsmeaning:感谢阅读■Nounstypicallydenoteentitiessuchashumanbeingsandobjects.谢谢阅读■Verbs,characteristicallydesignateaction,sensationandstates.精品文档放心下载2Themeaningassociatedwithnounsandverbscanbeelaboratedinvariousways:精品文档放心下载■Thepropertyorattributeoftheentitiesdenotedbynounscanbeelaboratedby谢谢阅读adjectives.■Thepropertiesandattributesoftheactions,sensationsandstatesdesignatedby谢谢阅读verbscantypicallybedenotedbyadverbs.谢谢阅读3Itismisleadingtoassumethataword’scategorycanbetoldstraightforward谢谢阅读fromitsmeaning.Nounssuchasdilemmaandfriendshipdonotconcretelyrevealtheirentities.精品文档放心下载Somewordssuchasloveandhatewhichindicateactionstendtobeverbsbuttheycanalsobeusedasnouns.感谢阅读,.Wordswiththesameorsimilarmeaningssometimesbelongtodifferentwordcategories,suchasbeawareofandknowabout.感谢阅读2Inflection:1Wordsofdifferentcategoriestakedifferentinflections.Wordsofdifferentcategoriestakedifferentinflection.精品文档放心下载Nounssuchasboyanddesktakethepluralaffix–s.感谢阅读Verbssuchasworkandhelptake–edand–ing.谢谢阅读Adjectivessuchasquietandclevertake–erand–est.精品文档放心下载2Althoughinflectionisveryhelpfulindeterminingaword’scategory,itdoesnot谢谢阅读alwayssuffice.Nounslikemoisture,fog,donottakepluralform–s.感谢阅读Adjectiveslikefrequentandintelligentdonottake–eror–est.感谢阅读3Distribution:Distributioniswhattypeofelementscanco-occurwithacertainword.精品文档放心下载Nounscantypicallyappearwithadeterminerlikethegirlandacard.精品文档放心下载Verbswithanauxiliarysuchasshouldstayandwillgo.感谢阅读Adjectiveswithadegreewordsuchasverycoolandtoobright.感谢阅读Conclusion:Thus,aword’sdistributionalfactstogetherwithinformationaboutits谢谢阅读meaningandinflectionalcapabilitieshelpidentifyits syntacticcategory.感谢阅读2.Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures感谢阅读phrase:syntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalled谢谢阅读phrase,thecategoryofwhichisdeterminedbythewordcategoryaroundwhich谢谢阅读,.thephraseisbuilt.phrasecategory:thephrasethatisformedbycombiningwithwordsofdifferent谢谢阅读categories.InEnglishsyntacticanalysis,fourphrasalcategoriesarecommonly感谢阅读recognizedanddiscussed,namely,NP,VP,PP,AP.感谢阅读Whetherformedofoneormorethanoneword,phrasesconsistoftwolevels,谢谢阅读phraselevelandwordlevel.精品文档放心下载NPVPAPPP<----------phraselevelNVAP<----------wordlevel谢谢阅读Phrasethatareformedofmorethanonewordusuallycontainhead,specifierand精品文档放心下载complement.head:Thewordroundwhichphraseisformedistermedhead.谢谢阅读specifier:Thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsaresaidtofunctionasspecifiers.精品文档放心下载complement:Thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsarecomplements.感谢阅读phrasestructurerule:Thespecialtypeofgrammaticalmechanismthatregulates精品文档放心下载thearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructure谢谢阅读rule.NP----->(Det)N(PP)…. AP---->(Deg)A(PP)….精品文档放心下载VP---->(Qual)v(NP)…. PP---->(Deg)P(NP)….精品文档放心下载1.XPRuleInNP,AP,VP,PPphrases,thespecifierisattachedatthetopleveltotheleftofhead精品文档放心下载whilecomplementisattachedtotheright.Thesesimilaritiescanbesummarized谢谢阅读,.withthehelpofthetemplate,inwhichXstandsfortheheadN,V,A,P.:TheXPrule:精品文档放心下载XP----->(specifier)X(complement)精品文档放心下载XPrule:Inallphrases,thespecifierisattachedatthetopleveltotheleftofthe感谢阅读headwhilethecomplementisattachedtotheright.Thesesimilaritiescanbe精品文档放心下载summarizedasanXPrule,inwhichXstandsfortheheadN,V,AorP.谢谢阅读2.X▔TheoryX▔theory:Atheoreticalconceptintransformationalgrammarwhichrestrictsthe感谢阅读formofcontext-freephrasesstructurerules.谢谢阅读Theintermediatelevelformedbytheheadandthecomplementbetweenword感谢阅读levelandphraselevelisrepresentedbythesymbolX▔.Thusthenewthree-level精品文档放心下载structurescanbewrittenasfollows:感谢阅读a.XP----->(specifier)X▔ b.X▔---->X(complement)谢谢阅读3.CoordinationRulecoordination:Somestructuresareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthe谢谢阅读sametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasandoror.Suchphenomenonis感谢阅读knownascoordination.Suchstructuresarecalledcoordinationstructures.精品文档放心下载Fourimportantproperties:谢谢阅读1Thereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesthatcanappearprior感谢阅读totheconjunction.2Acategoryatanylevel(aheadoranentireXP)canbecoordinated.精品文档放心下载3Coordinatedcategoriesmustbeofthesametype感谢阅读4Thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeofthe感谢阅读,.elementsbeingconjoined.CoordinationRule:X------>X*ConX感谢阅读PartFour:Phraseelements精品文档放心下载1.Specifiersspecifier:Thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsandwhichareattachedtothetop感谢阅读level,arespecifiers.Specifiershavebothspecialsemanticandsyntacticroles:感谢阅读Semantically,theyhelpmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead.感谢阅读Syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary.精品文档放心下载Thesyntacticcategoryofthespecifierdiffersdependingonthecategoryofthe精品文档放心下载plement:Thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsarecomplements.精品文档放心下载Complementsarethemselvesphrasesandprovideinformationaboutentitiesand谢谢阅读locationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead.Theyareattached精品文档放心下载totherightoftheheadinEnglish.谢谢阅读subcategorization:theinformationaboutaword’scomplementisincludedinthe精品文档放心下载headandtermedsuncategorization.谢谢阅读“*”meansthefactthatcomplements,howevermanythereare,occurtotherightoftheheadinEnglish.感谢阅读MissHebertbelievesthatshewillwin.谢谢阅读,.“that”------complementizer:Wordswhichintroducethesentencecomplement感谢阅读aretermedcomplementizer.谢谢阅读“shewillwin”----complementclause:Thesentenceintroducedbythecomplementizer.感谢阅读“thatshewillwin”----complementphrase:theelements,includingacomplementizerandacomplementclause.精品文档放心下载“MissHebertbelieves”----matrixclause:thecontrusctioninwhichthecomplementphraseisembedded.谢谢阅读3.modifiersmodifier:theelement,whichspecifiesoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheadsiscalledmodifier.谢谢阅读XP------>(Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod)精品文档放心下载Thisruleallowsamodifiertooccureitherbeforetheheadorafterit.Wherethereisacomplement,amodifierthataccursaftertheheadwillnormallyoccurtotherightofthecomplementaswell.精品文档放心下载PartFive:Sentences(TheSRule)zs谢谢阅读1TheSrule:S---->NP