【联合国贸易发展委员会】斐济生姜价值链有机认证评估-2025

UNITEDNATIONSCONFERENCEONTRADEANDDEVELOPMENT

AssessmentoforganiccertificationinthegingervaluechaininFiji

Technicalcooperationoutcome

Geneva,2025

©2025,UnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopment

Thefindings,interpretationsandconclusionsexpressedhereinarethoseoftheauthorsanddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsoftheUnitedNationsoritsofficialsorMemberStates.

ThedesignationsemployedandthepresentationofmaterialonanymapinthisworkdonotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartoftheUnitedNationsconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,territory,cityorareaorofitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationof

itsfrontiersorboundaries.

MentionofanyfirmorlicensedprocessdoesnotimplytheendorsementoftheUnitedNations.

Photocopiesandreproductionsofexcerptsareallowedwithpropercredits.Thispublicationhasnotbeenformallyedited.

UNCTAD/TCS/DITC/INF/2025/2

AssessmentoforganiccertificationinthegingervaluechaininFiji

Acknowledgements

ThisreportwaspreparedbyJulienBliesener,SeulLeeandRupalVermaoftheDivisiononInternationalTradeandCommoditiesofUNCTAD.Inaddition,RalfPetersandTheresaCarpenterprovidedsubstantivecontributions.DesktoppublishinganddesignwereundertakenbyJeniferTacardon-Mercado.

UNCTADgratefullyacknowledgesthevaluablecontributionsofthePacificCommunity(SPC)andPacificOrganicandEthicalTradeCommunity(PoetCom),inparticular,StephenHazelman,KarenMapusa,JimPierceandSanfredSmith.Furthermore,inputsreceivedfromLagiFisher,NiuDawnConsultantsandtheInternationalTradeCentre(ITC)wereinstrumentalinthedevelopmentofthereport.

UNCTADfurthergratefullyacknowledgesthesupportandvaluableinputsoftheGovernmentofFiji,particularlytheMinistryofTrade,Co-operatives,SmallandMediumEnterprisesandtheMinistryofAgricultureandWaterways,whichcontributedsignificantlytothepreparationofthereport.

Thereportispartoftheproject“GreentradeforsustainabledevelopmentinPacificsmallislanddevelopingStatesoftheMelanesianSpearheadGroup(MSG)”.Theprojectwasfinancedthroughtranche12oftheUnitedNationsDevelopmentAccountandimplementedbyUNCTADjointlywiththeMSGSecretariat.

iii

AssessmentoforganiccertificationinthegingervaluechaininFiji

Abbreviationsandacronyms

CBI

CentreforthePromotionofImportsfromdevelopingcountries

FAO

FoodandAgricultureOrganization

GDP

GrossDomesticProduct

IFOAM

InternationalFoundationforOrganicAgricultureMovement

ITC

InternationalTradeCentre

NDP

NationalDevelopmentPlan

PGS

ParticipatoryGuaranteeSystem

PoetCom

PacificOrganicandEthicalTradeCommunity

SDGs

SustainableDevelopmentGoals

SPC

PacificCommunity

SPS

SanitaryandPhytosanitary

UNCTAD

UnitedNationsTradeandDevelopment

UNFSS

UnitedNationsForumonSustainabilityStandards

VSS

VoluntarySustainabilityStandards

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AssessmentoforganiccertificationinthegingervaluechaininFiji

Tableofcontents

Acknowledgements iii

Abbreviationsandacronyms iv

Note

vii

Executivesummary ix

1.Introduction

1

2.ThegingersectorinFiji 3

2.1Gingerproductionandtrade 3

2.2

Activitiesinthegingersupplychain

6

2.2.1Farmingandharvesting 6

2.2.2Primaryprocessing 7

2.2.3Secondaryprocessing 7

2.2.4Exportingandmarketaccess 8

2.

3Gingervaluechainstakeholders 8

3.Backgroundoforganiccertification 13

3.1VoluntarySustainabilityStandards 13

3.2OrganicstandardsandcertificationinthePacific 15

3.3OrganicagricultureinthePacificandinFiji 17

4.Perceptionofgingervaluechainstakeholdersregarding

organiccertification 19

4.1.Characteristicsofthesurveyrespondents 19

4.2.Perceptionsofthesurveyrespondentsonorganic

certificationuptake 20

4.3.Perceptionsofthesurveyrespondentsoncontribution

totheSDGs 22

5.OpportunitiesandchallengesfororganicgingerinFiji 25

6.Conclusionsandpolicyrecommendations 27

References

29

Annex1:SurveyQuestions 33

Annex2:Methodology 35

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AssessmentoforganiccertificationinthegingervaluechaininFiji

Listoffigures

Figure1.Growinggingerexports 4

Figure2.Understandingthegingervaluechain 6

Figure3.Thenumerousactorsinvolvedinthevaluechain 9

Figure4.TheriseofVSS 19

Figure5.Whoansweredthesurvey 19

Figure6.Whyisthereinterestincertification? 21

Figure7.Thechallengesofcertification 21

Listoftables

Table1.Productiondataofginger(raw)inFiji2013-2022 3

Table2.OrganicallycertifiedagriculturalproductsinthePacificIslands

countriesandterritories 17

Table3.Organiccertification,theSDGsandtheirchannels 22

Listofboxes

Box1.Fiji’seconomicstructureandsocialdevelopment 5

Box2.Participatorycertificationandthird-partycertification 16

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AssessmentoforganiccertificationinthegingervaluechaininFiji

Note

ThisassessmentoforganiccertificationinthegingervaluechaininFijiispartoftheGreentradeforsustainabledevelopmentinPacificsmallislanddevelopingStatesoftheMelanesianSpearheadGroup(MSG)project,1referredtoastheMSGGreenTradeProject.ConductedbytheUnitedNationsTradeandDevelopment(UNCTAD)andtheMSGSecretariat,2theobjectiveoftheMSGGreenTradeProjectistoidentifyandstrengthensynergisticlinkagesbetweengreentradepromotionandtheSustainableDevelopmentStrategies(SDS)ofMSGmemberStates–Fiji,PapuaNewGuinea,SolomonIslandsandVanuatu–inaregionallycollaborativemanner.

ThisreportwaspreparedjointlybyUNCTADandtheMSGSecretariat,withthesupportoftheGovernmentofFiji.ItisanoutputforFijiofPhase1oftheproject.Phase1comprisesallnationalactivitiestoidentifypotentialsynergisticlinkagesandtopromotegreentrade.TheactivitiesunderPhase1included:

1)Organizinga

nationalworkshop

inFiji.

2)Collectingandpublishing

Non-TariffMeasures(NTM)

dataforFiji.

3)PublishingaguideforexportinggingerfromFiji.

4)SynergisticLinkagesbetweenGreenTradeandSustainableDevelopmentinFiji

ThePhase1activitiesandreportslaidthefoundationforPhase2,whichentailedthecreationofa

SubregionalActionPlanforGreenTradePromotion

attheMSGlevel.

1Theprojectwebsiteandprojectdocumentcanbeaccessedat:

/project/green-trade-

sustainable-development-pacific-small-island-developing-states-melanesian

2Formoreinformation,see:

/about-msg/

vii

©MoisesHidalgo-

AssessmentoforganiccertificationinthegingervaluechaininFiji

Executivesummary

ThisreportprovidesananalysisofthegingervaluechaininFiji,withafocusonthepotentialandchallengesoforganiccertification.Thereportexaminesthestatus

oforganiccertificationinthesector,assessestheperceptionsofkeystakeholders,andidentifiesopportunitiesintheorganicgingermarket.Thefindingsarebasedonanalysis,stakeholdersurveys,andexpertinterviews.

Fiji’sagriculturalsectorremainsasignificantshareofthenationaleconomy,contributing14.5percenttotheGrossDomesticProduct(GDP)in2021.Withinthissector,gingerhasbeenakeyexportproductsincethemid-1980s.Fijiexportsgingertoseveralinternational

markets,includingAustralia,NewZealand,theUnitedStatesofAmerica,andtheEuropeanUnion.Theglobaldemandfororganicproducts,particularlyinthespicemarket,presentsanopportunityforFijitoenhanceitsorganicgingerexports.VoluntarySustainabilityStandards(VSS)canprovideaccesstohigh-valuemarkets,promotingsustainableagriculturalpracticesandbenefitingFiji’seconomy.

Thereporthighlightsthegrowinginterestamongstakeholdersinobtainingorganic

certification,drivenbythepotentialforhighermarketaccessandimprovedproductquality.However,significantchallengesremain.Theseincludethehighcostsofcertification,thetimeandcomplexityinvolvedinmeetingcertificationrequirements,andalackof

technicalknowledgeamongsmall-scalefarmers.Thereisalsoadiscrepancybetweentheexpectationsofnon-certifiedstakeholdersandtheactualbenefitsrealizedbythosewhohavealreadyachievedcertification,particularlyconcerningpricepremiumsfor

organicproducts.

Despitethesebarriers,organiccertificationpresentsopportunities.Participatoryguaranteesystem(PGS)certificationoffersamoreaccessiblepathwayforsmallfarmerstoenter

organicmarkets,especiallyinunregulatedmarketssuchasAustraliaandNewZealand.

TheFijiangovernment,throughitsNationalDevelopmentPlan(NDP),supportsthe

growthoforganicfarming,recognizingitspotentialtocontributetosustainableeconomicdevelopmentanddiversifythecountry’sexportbase.

Keypolicyrecommendationsfromthereportinclude:

1.Developanationalmulti-stakeholderbodyfororganicgingercertification

Thisbodywouldcoordinateefforts,promotecollaborationamongstakeholders,andprovidetrainingandinformationsharingtosupportorganiccertification.

2.Reducebarrierstoobtainingandmaintainingorganiccertification

Measuresincludeofferingsubsidiesforcertificationcosts,improvingaccesstoauditors,andprovidingtrainingmaterialstosimplifycomplianceforfarmers.

ix

©chanchai-

AssessmentoforganiccertificationinthegingervaluechaininFiji

1.Introduction

Fijihasadiverseagriculturalsectorthatplaysa

vitalroleinthecountry’seconomy.Theagriculture,forestry,andfishingsectoristhethirdlargest

intermsofcontributiontothegrossdomestic

product(GDP),estimatedat14.5percentin

2021.3Furthermore,thereispotentialforthe

sectortodevelopnicheandorganicproductsforhigh-valueexports.Theagriculturalsectorcould

createsynergieswiththetourismindustrythroughinitiativeslikepromotingagritourismandbrandinghotelsandrestaurantsthatsourcelocalfood.Thehighproportionofsubsistencefarmingmakesthissectorindispensableforthecountry’sfoodsecurity(FAO,2020a).

Fiji’s20-YearNationalDevelopmentPlan(NDP)

identifiesnon-sugaragricultureasadevelopmentarea,withafocuson‘‘competitive,sustainable

andvalue-addingagriculture”(Ministryof

Economy,2017).TheNDPfurtheremphasizes

that“organicfarmingpracticeswillbepromoted,andtheproductionoftraditionalcropsandnicheagriculturalandfisheriesproductswillbepursued”.

Withinthenon-sugaragriculturalsector,Fiji’sgingersectorisimportantandgrowingwithmajorexportdestinationstoneighbouringAustraliaandNew

Zealand,aswellastheUnitedStatesofAmericaandtheEuropeanUnion.Fijistartedproducing

gingeraroundthe1950sandbythemid-1980s

gingerhadbecomeitssecondagriculturalexportproductaftersugar(Sharmaetal.,2021).Gingerhasremainedinthetopfiveexportedfresh/chilledagriculturalcommoditiessincethen(FijiAgricultureandRuralStatisticsUnit,n/d).

Ginger’sversatilityanddemandinvariousforms,suchaspowder,oil,andoleoresin,4makeita

valuableexportcrop.Additionally,consumer

interestinsustainableandhealth-relatedproductsisgrowingintheinternationalmarket.In2021,theglobalorganicspicemarketwasvaluedatUS$

18.5billionandisprojectedtoreachnearlyUS$21.75billionby2026(CBI,2022).Fiji’sginger,alongwithturmericandcuminseeds,isamongFiji’smostexportedorganic-certifiedspices.

However,asignificantamountofgingerinFijiis

notcertified.OrganiccertificationbyVoluntary

SustainabilityStandards(VSS)couldprovideFiji

withanopportunitytoincreasetheproduction

andexportoforganicginger,asitenhancesthe

credibilityofaproduct’sorganicclaimstobuyers.Additionally,VSSadoptionandcertificationprocessofteninvolvecapacitybuildingandknowledge

sharing.

ThisreportexaminesthecurrentstateofthegingervaluechaininFijiandassessesstakeholders’

perceptionsofmarketopportunitiesand

sustainabilitybenefitsfororganicallycertifiedginger.Drawingonanalysis,asurveyofstakeholders,andinterviewswithexperts,thisreport:

•Describesthestructureofthegingervaluechainanditsstakeholders.

•Investigatesstakeholders’perceptionsoforganiccertificationwithinthegingervaluechain.

•Explorestheopportunitiesandchallenges

associatedwithorganiccertificationofginger.

•Identifieswaystoleverageorganiccertificationtocapitaliseonmarketopportunitiesand

benefitfarmers.

Thisreportisstructuredasfollows:Section2

describestheevolutionofthegingersectorin

Fiji,outliningthedifferentstagesofthevalue

chainforvariousgingerproductsandidentifyingthestakeholdersinvolved.Section3providesa

briefbackgroundonVSS,includingtheorganic

VSSinFiji.Section4investigatestheperceptionofstakeholdersregardingorganiccertificationin

thegingersectorinFiji.Section5exploresboth

theopportunitiesandchallengesassociatedwithorganiccertificationofginger.Section6concludesbyidentifyingtwopolicyrecommendationsthat

providewaystoleverageorganiccertificationtocapitaliseonmarketopportunitiesandbenefitfarmers.

3Datafrom

/indicator/NV.AGR.TOTL.ZS?locations=FJ

4Oleoresinsareresin-likeviscousmaterials,whichresultwhenaspiceisextractedwithahydrocarbonsolvent.

1

©Alchemist-

AssessmentoforganiccertificationinthegingervaluechaininFiji

2.ThegingersectorinFiji

2.1.Gingerproductionand

trade

GingerisnativetoSouth-EastAsiabutitisnowwidelyfarmedinAfrica,EastAsia,SouthAsia,andtheCaribbean.Indiaisthelargestproducer,withaproductionof2,225,000tonnesin2021(Bhutiaetal.,2022).5Gingertakesaroundthreetotenmonthsfromseedingtoharvesting.Dependingonitsmaturity,freshgingeristermedyounggingerifitisharvestedatthreetosevenmonthsormaturegingerwhenharvestedateighttotenmonths.

Gingerproductionislabour-andcapital-

intensiveduetoitssusceptibilitytopests

anddiseases,bothinthefieldandduring

thepost-harvestperiod.(Sharmaetal.,

2021;NationalAgricultureAdvisoryServices,n/d).

Whitegingerandpinkgingerarethetwo

varietiesofgingergrowninFiji(FijiGinger

FarmersAssociation,n/d).GingerisplantedinOctober,springinFiji,andharvested

betweenJuly,latewinter,foryoungginger

andNovember,thefollowingyear,formatureginger.

AccordingtotheFijiBureauofStatistics,

valueaddedbycultivatinggingerwasFJD7,559,589in2019andFJD8,534,053

in2020,contributing0.7percenttothe

agriculture,forestry,andfishingsector

forbothyears(FijiBureauofStatistics,

2022b).Table1illustratesthegrowthintheproductionofrawgingerinFiji.

Table1.Productiondataofginger(raw)inFiji2013-2022

YearArea

(ha)

Production(tonnes)

Yield(kg/ha)

2013171346355908

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

161

244

262

303

395

313

456

553

563

34524

25000

25000

25000

25048

30000

25000

25000

25400

5553

6109

6548

7585

9894

9398

11409

13815

14290

Source:UNCTAD,basedonFAO(n.d.)andFijiBureauofStatistics(2022).

Note:Productionvaluemaydifferslightlyfrom(Area*Yield)/1000duetorounding.

Figure1illustratesFiji’sgingerexportstoitsmajormarketsfrom2020to2022.During

thisperiod,thetotalexportvalueincreasedsteadily,reachingapproximatelyFJD11.1

millionin2020,FJD13millionin2021,andFJD16.6millionin2022(MOA,2023).

Exportedgingerproductsincludecrushed

orgroundginger;gingerpreservedinbrine;freshyoungginger;othergingerincluding

freshmatureginger;gingerpreserved

bysugar,whichincludescrystalizedand

candiedginger;andgingerbread.Overhalfthetotalvalueofexportscamefrom

gingerpreservedbysugar.6Themain

exportmarkets–Australia,Netherlands,theUnitedStatesofAmerica,GermanyandNewZealandareunchangedsince2020,althoughtheorderofimportancehaschanged.7Fijiisallowedtoexport

Thetotalexportvalueofgingerincreased

steadily,

reaching

approximatelyFJD11.1millionin2020,FJD13millionin2021,andFJD16.6millionin2022.

5AsoflatestdatafromFAOSTAT:

/faostat/en/#data/QCL

6Theexportvalueshareofgingerpreservedbysugaroutoftotalgingerproductswas63percent,54percentand58percentin2020,2021and2022respectively.

7MostofthegingerimportedbyNetherlandsandGermanywasreexportedanddistributedacrosstheEuropeanUnion.

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AssessmentoforganiccertificationinthegingervaluechaininFiji

freshmaturegingertoAustraliaforfurtherprocessing,subjecttospecificimport

regulations,aswellassugar-preserved,

brine-preserved,andpowderedginger

(Sharmaetal.,2021;SunFiji,2016;

BiosecurityAustralia,2007).Therapid

growthinexportstoAustraliaisaccountedforbygrowthintheexportoffreshyoungginger,whichtheFijiangovernmenthas

designatedasahigh-prioritycommoditytoaccessAustralianmarkets.Organicgingerisalsogainingimportanceasahigh-valuecommodity.Theagricultureministryand

thetradeministryhavetogetheridentifiedorganicgingerasaproductwithahighpotentialforgrowthinproductionand

export,andareactivelysupportingthesector(Kate,2017).

Figure1

Growinggingerexports

Fijianexportsofgingerbymarket(2020-2022,alltypes,inFJDmillions)

202020212022

5m

4m

3m

2m

1m

Australia

Canada

Germany

Netherlands

New

Zealand

United

Kingdom

United

States

Restofthe

world

Source:UNCTAD,basedondataprovidedbytheMinistryofAgricultureandWaterways(MOA)in2023.

Note:Thevaluesprovidedincludefreshginger,bothyoungandmature,aswellas“gingerpreservedbysugar”.

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AssessmentoforganiccertificationinthegingervaluechaininFiji

Box1

Fiji’seconomicstructureandsocialdevelopment

FijiisaSmallIslandDevelopingState(SIDS)inthePacificregionwithapopulationof930,000asof2022,ofwhich44percentresideinruralareas(UNCTAD,2024;FijiBureauofStatistics,2018).Itisanarchipelagoofapproximately332islands—110ofwhichareinhabited—withatotallandareaof18,300squarekilometresandamaritimezoneof1.3millionsquarekilometres.Thecountryhasabundantnaturalresources,includingforests,minerals,andfish.Fiji’sterritoryisprimarilymadeupofmountainousislandsofvolcanicorigin,withmostofthepopulationconcentratedonthetwolargestislands,VitiLevuandVanuaLevu.Agriculturallandcoversanestimated311,600hectares,representingaround17percentofthecountry’stotallandarea(FijiBureauofStatistics,2018).

Instructuralterms,Fijifeaturesanadvancedservicessectorledbytourismindustry,anicheindustrysectorandanagriculturalsectorwithstrongpotential(WorldBank,2024).WithaGDPpercapitaofUS$5,804,theWorldBank(2024)classifiesFijiasanupper-middle-incomecountry.However,accordingtoahouseholdincomeandexpendituresurveyconductedbythegovernmentofFijiin2019-2020,anestimated24percentoftheFijianpopulationlivedinpoverty.However,incomepovertyhasbeenonadecliningtrendsince2008(MinistryofEconomy,2017;FijiBureauofStatistics,n/d).

AgricultureisanimportantpillaroftheFijianeconomy,representingnearly30percentofemploymentand9.3percentofGDP(FAO,2022).Thesectorisamixofcommercialandsubsistencefarming,withthelatteraccountingforaround80percentofthefoodsupplyinthecountry(FAO,2020a).TheCOVID-19pandemicledtoincreasedsubsistencefarmingpractices(FijiTimes,2021;Randin,2020;IFAD,2023),emphasizingtheimportanceofPacificagricultureinfoodsecurity,economicdevelopmentanddomesticfoodsystemsresilience.

Fijiishighlysusceptibletonaturaldisasters,particularlycyclones,floods,earthquakes,tsunamis,anddrought.Fijihasextremelyhighexposuretotropicalcyclones,costingaround5percentofitsGDPannually.Thesearefurtherexpectedtobeaffectedbyclimatechange,therisksofwhicharecurrentlypoorlyunderstood(WorldBankClimateChangeKnowledgePortal,n/d).Forexample,Fiji’sagriculturesectorsufferedlossesestimatedatUS$146.5million,with75percentcropdamageduringTropicalCycloneYasain2020(TheFijianGovernment,n/d).Inaddition,theFijiNationalDisasterManagementOfficehasindicatedthatnaturaldisastersareoneoftheleadingcausesoffoodinsecurity(FijiGovernment,2021).

Fiji’s5-Year&20-yearNDPlaunchedin2017highlightsthecountry’sstrategiesandaimstoachievedevelopmentgoalsunderavisionof“TransformingFiji”.Itaddressesmanycross-cuttingthemessuchasclimatechange,greengrowth,theenvironment,genderequality,disabilityandgovernanceacrossthevarioussectionsrecognisingtheintegratednatureofdevelopment(RepublicofFiji,2019;MinistryofEconomy,2017).

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AssessmentoforganiccertificationinthegingervaluechaininFiji

2.2.Activitiesintheginger

supplychain

Thesetofactivitiesinthesupplychainforginger,fromrawgingerharvestedatthe

farmtofinalproductssoldtoconsumers,isshowninFigure2below.Valueisaddedtotheproductateachstage.

2.2.1Farmingandharvesting

Forgingerfarming,thelandispreparedatleastonemonthbeforeplantingasitallowsthesuntokillmostofthepathogensinthesoil.Further,goodseedlingsareselectedforplantationandtreatedtokillpathogens(FijiMinistryofAgricultureandWaterways,2014).Thisisfollowedbyplanting,weed

control,andfertilising.Thenthegingeris

allowedtogrowbiggerinsize,whichis

calledhilling,anditencouragestheupward

growthofginger.Lastly,gingerisharvestedanytimebetweenthreetotenmonths.

Thepriceperkiloishighestwhengingerisharvestedatthreemonthsold,buttheyieldsarelow(FijiGingerFarmersAssociation,

n/d).InFiji,mostofthelandpreparation,

cultivation,andharvestingtakeplaceby

hand(AECOMinAustraliaandNewZealand,2016).

Fijifacesseveralchallengesinfarming

andharvestingginger(NationalAgricultureAdvisoryServices,n/d;Sharmaetal.,2021),includingthefollowing:

Lackofqualityplantingmaterial

Subsistencefarmerstendtoselltheirginger,forquickmoney,whenitisimmature.Thisimmaturegingerhaslowerseedmaterial,

makingreplantingdifficult.

Figure2

Understandingthegingervaluechain

Adescriptionofgingervaluechainactivities

Farm&Harvest

secondaryprocessing

processingplant

Freshginger

Highervalue-added

products(likeginger

paste,gingerjuice,

gingershots,ginger

pickles)andnew

products

candiedginger,gingerdrinks

Rawgingerwashing,peeling

primaryprocessing

essentialoils,gingeroleoresin

Domesticand

consumer

Source:Authors’creationbasedoninformationfromBiosecurityAustralia(2007);andAECOMinAustraliaandNewZealand(2016).

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AssessmentoforganiccertificationinthegingervaluechaininFiji

Climaticconditions

Gingercropsrequireconsiderablerainfall.InFiji,gingergrowsinthewesternandcentraldivisions.Thecentraldivisionhasexcess

rainfall,causingissuesofcompounding

pathogens,whilethewesterndivisionhas

rainfallthatfallsshortofwhatisneededforagoodyieldofginger.

Soil-bornepathogensandpests

Likeotherginger-growingcountries,fungalpathogensPythiumgracileandFusanum

Oxysporumcausesoftrotandrhizome

rot.Fiji’sprolongedwetweathermakes

gingersusceptibletoPythiumgracile,whichfavourshumidcondition.Anotherproblemispests,includingrootknotnematodeandburrowingnematode,broughtinviathe

plantingmaterialsandwhite-colouredscaleinsect.

Adeclineintheintergenerationaltransferofexpertise

Oldergingerfarmersretiringandthe

youngergeneration’slackofparticipationingingerfarminghaveresultedindecreasedexpertise.Furthermore,thereislimited

technicalawarenessofintegratedpests

anddiseasemanagement,particularlyforreplacingnon-organicoptionswiththeir

organicalternatives,whichisoneofthekeycriteriafororganiccertification.

Landissues

About88percentoflandinFijiisnativelandandmostfarminglandsfallunder

thiscategory.Nativelandisowned

communallybynativeFijiangroups,anditcanbeonlyleasedorlicensed.Therefore,incommonwithotherdevelopingcountries,manyindigenousfarmersinFijilackland

titledocumentsandstruggletoaccess

financingtoexpandproduction(ITC,2022).Understandably,farmersarehesitantto

leaseandinvestinlandsthatdonothavelong-termleasingoptions.

2.2.2Primaryprocessing

Afterharvesting,farmersprocessginger

bysorting,rinsing,cleaningandsplitting

thecropbeforetakingittothemarket.Twochallengesatthisstageare:(i)processing

techniquesremainmanual,giventhelackoftechnology;and(ii)whengingeriswashedinuncleanwaterorwhenitisstoredinpooraerationorincontaminatedsheds,thereisariskofrhizomerotbyFusanumOxysporum,whichmaycausehugepost-harvestlosses.(NationalAgricultureAdvisoryServices,n/d).

2.2.3Secondaryprocessing

Freshgingercanbeturnedintoprocessedgingerproductsbysecondaryprocessing.Someofthetypicalgingerproductsand

theirmanufacturingprocessareexplainedbelow.Althoughsecondaryprocessed

products,suchasdriedsplitginger,usuallyhaveahigherpricethanfreshginger,fewfarmersundertakesecondaryprocessing.Instead,theysellfreshgingertoexportersandprocessorswhothenhandlethe

secondaryprocessing(CBI,2020).The

mainoptionsforprocessinggingerarethefollowing:

•Dryginger

Generally,dryingisdoneinthecountryoforiginbeforeexporttoavoidlosingflavour.Inmostcases,gingerispeeledbeforedryingtoreducethedrying

timeandriskofmouldorfermentation,althoughthisalsoreducespungency.Drygingerisoftenusedtomakeothergingerproducts,includingginger

powderbypulve