【联合国贸发会议】2024年韩国内容产业走向全球：政府支持和版权政策如何推动韩国创意经济发展研究报告5010mb

UNITEDNATIONSCONFERENCEONTRADEANDDEVELOPMENTHOWGOVERNMENTSUPPORTANDCOPYRIGHTPOLICYHOWGOVERNMENTSUPPORTANDCOPYRIGHTPOLICYFUELLEDTHEREPUBLICOFKOREA'SECONOMYGeneva,2024PAGE\*romanPAGE\*romanii©2024,UnitedNationsThisworkisavailablethroughopenaccess,bycomplyingwiththeCreativeCommonslicencecreatedforintergovernmentalorganizations,at/licenses/by/3.0/igo/.Thefindings,interpretationsandconclusionsexpressedhereinarethoseoftheauthor(s)anddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsoftheUnitedNationsoritsofficialsorMemberStates.ThedesignationsemployedandthepresentationofmaterialonanymapinthisworkdonotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartoftheUnitedNationsconcerningthelegalstatusofanyterritory,cityorareaorofitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiersorboundaries.MentionofanyfirmorlicensedprocessdoesnotimplytheendorsementoftheUnitedNations.Photocopiesandreproductionsofexcerptsareallowedwithpropercredits.Thispublicationhasnotbeenformallyedited.UnitedNationspublicationissuedbytheUnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopmentUNCTAD/DITC/TSCE/2023/3andCorr.1ISBN:978-92-1-358548-1HOWGOVERNMENTSUPPORTANDCOPYRIGHTPOLICYFUELLEDTHEREPUBLICOFKOREA'SCREATIVEECONOMYHOWGOVERNMENTSUPPORTANDCOPYRIGHTPOLICYFUELLEDTHEREPUBLICOFKOREA'SCREATIVEECONOMYPAGE\*romanPAGE\*romanivACNOWLEDGEMENTSAcknowledgementsThestudywasprepared,underthegeneralguidanceofIto,DongWuandMarisaHendersonoftheSystems,ServicesandCreativeEconomyBranchattheUnitedNationsConferenceonandDevelopment(UNCTAD),byHeeKim,incollaborationwithKatalinMihoShirotori,theActingDirectoroftheDivisiononInternationalandCommoditiesatUNCTAD,providedthestrategicguidanceandoversightforthepublication.gratefullyacknowledgesthesignificantcontributionstothestudyofJenSnowball(RhodesUniversity,SouthAfrica).ThestudyalsobenefitedfromextensivecommentsandresourcesprovidedbytheMinistryofCulture,Sports,andaswellasexternalexpertsoftheRepublicofKoreaspecializingincontent-basedindustriesandcopyright.ExternalexpertsincludedHoonSongandDongWookLeefromtheKoreaCreativeContentJinLeeandSeokPakfromtheKoreaCopyrightCommission,andChoeKyongSoofromtheKoreaDevelopmentInstitute(KDI)SchoolofPublicPolicyandManagement.SubstantiveandeditorialfeedbackwasprovidedbythefollowingUNCTADstaffmembers:GrahamMott,ZenathanAdminHasannudin,YutaroSakataandLauraMoresino-Borini.DesignandlayoutworkwasdonebyLauraMoresino-Borini.ABBREVIATIONSANDACRONYMSAbbreviationsandacronymsCMOcopyrightmanagementorganizationFTAfreetradeagreementIPRintellectualpropertyrightsISPInternetserviceproviderKCCKoreaCopyrightCommissionKCOPAKoreaCopyrightProtectionAgencyMCSTMinistryofCulture,Sports,andTourismKCTIKoreaCultureandTourismInstituteKOCCAKoreaCreativeContentAgencyKOFICEKoreaFoundationforInternationalCulturalExchangeKOTECKoreaTechnologyFinanceCorporationKOTRAKoreaTrade-InvestmentPromotionAgencyNIPANationalITIndustryPromotionAgencyOECDOrganizationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopmentRMIrightsmanagementinformationRTAregionaltradeagreementSNSsocialnetworkingserviceTPMtechnologicalprotectionmeasuresTRIPsTrade-RelatedAspectsofIntellectualPropertyRightsUCCUniversalCopyrightConventionWIPOWorldIntellectualPropertyOrganizationWTOWorldTradeOrganizationHOWGOVERNMENTSUPPORTANDCOPYRIGHTPOLICYFUELLEDTHEREPUBLICOFKOREA'SCREATIVEECONOMYCONTENTSHOWGOVERNMENTSUPPORTANDCOPYRIGHTPOLICYFUELLEDTHEREPUBLICOFKOREA'SCREATIVEECONOMYCONTENTSPAGE\*romanPAGE\*romanviContentsAcknowledgements iiiAbbreviationsandacronyms ivINTRODUCTION 1THEPURPOSEOFPOLICYANDTHERATIONALEFORGOVERNMENTSUPPORTFORTHEARTS 3OVERVIEWOFTHECONTENT-BASEDINDUSTRY 9Globalmarkettrends 10Content-basedindustrytrendsintheRepublicofKorea 12POLICYOFTHEGOVERNMENTOFTHEREPUBLICOFKOREAFORTHECONTENT-BASEDINDUSTRIES 15Publicpolicyforthegrowthofthecontent-basedindustry 16Copyrightpolicytoincentivizecreatorsandprotectcopyrightedworks 18Financialincentives 22Institutionalframework 23Legislativeframework 23Governance 25CONCLUSIONANDIMPLICATIONS 27Endnotes 33References 37Annexes25economieswithlargestrevenuesinthecontent-basedindustries 43inthecontent-basedindustryoftheRepublicofKorea,2016–2020 44BoxesOverviewofthegrowthoftheKoreanwaveorHallyu 14SuccessfactorsdrivingthepopularityoftheKoreanwaveorHallyu 17BrandpoweroftheRepublicofKoreaassociatedwiththeKoreanwaveorHallyu 26FiguresGlobalmarketsizeofthecontent-basedindustries 10Globalmarketsizeoftheanimation,film,andmusicindustries 11sales,exports,andemploymentinthesectorsoftheRepublicofKoreacontent-basedindustry 13Intellectualpropertyrightsandcopyrightstradebalance 14Timelineofpolicymeasures,domesticsalesandexportsofcontent-basedindustryintheRepublicofKorea 16TablesSizeoftheglobalcontent-basedmarket 12Illustrativemeasuresoncopyright 19MainrevisionsoftheCopyrightActintheRepublicofKorea 21Lawsrelatedtothecontent-basedindustryintheRepublicofKorea 24INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONCreativeindustriesareamongthemostrapidlyexpandingsectors,offeringaviableavenueforeconomicdevelopment,particularlyfordevelopingcountries.Creativeindustriescanbedefinedas“industrialsectorscomprisetangibleproductsandintangibleintellectualorartisticserviceswithcreativecontent,economicvaluesandmarketobjectives”(UNCTAD,2022a).Content-basedindustries,asubsetofcreativeindustries,encompassvariouscontent-producingsectors.(EuropeanCommission,2018;UNCTAD,2022a;WIPO,2018).Thecontent-basedindustrycomprisestheculturalcreativeandartisticsectors,publishing,music,broadcasting,andfilm.Duetotheinherentexpansivenessofcontentandadvancementsindigitaltechnologies,thecontent-basedindustrynotonlyevolvesitselfbutalsospursgrowthinothersectorssuchasplatformsandonlineretail.This,inturn,significantlycontributestothebroaderdevelopmentofthecreativeeconomyinthedigitalage2010a).Therehasbeenaworldwideshiftfromseeingtheculturalsectorasassociatedwithpublicgoodsthatprovideprimarilynon-marketvalues,toseeingthecreativeindustriesasanindustrialsectorintheirownright(UNCTAD,2022;Lee,2020).Thisnewconceptualisationhasalsoledtoashiftinculturalpolicy:fromstrategiesthatonsubsidisingasectorthatprovidespublicgoods(intrinsicartisticexcellence;socialcohesion;heritageandidentity)tostrategiesmuchmorerelatedtoindustrialHOWGOVERNMENTSUPPORTANDCOPYRIGHTPOLICYFUELLEDTHEREPUBLICOFKOREA'SCREATIVEECONOMYINTRODUCTIONNewemergingtechnologiessuchasartificialintelligence,cloudcomputingand3Dprintinghavechangedsomepartsofthecreativeindustries,generatingnewbusinessmodelsinthevaluechainsofproducing,distributing,andconsumingcreativegoodsandservices2010a;UNCTAD,2022a).Forexample,onlineplatforms,byusingartificialintelligencetechnologies,providepersonalizedmusicorfilmcontenttoeachconsumer.TheCOVID-19pandemicacceleratedtheshifttoe-commerceanddigitalplatformsandtherapidmovetodigitalcontentservices(Ryu,2021).Giventhepaceofdigitalizationandtheevolvingbusinesslandscape,newpolicychallengesinevitablyariseforthegrowthofcontent-basedindustry.Thesechallengesincludefosteringdigitalcompetencies;cultivatingaconduciveenvironmentforcreativeindustries,especiallyinviewoftheirhigh-risknature;andformulatingsuitableinstitutionalframeworks(UNCTAD,2022).Sincethe2000s,theRepublicofKoreahaschampionedthedevelopmentofthecontent-basedindustryasacornerstoneforeconomicgrowth,followingthenationalagendatoboosthigh-valueactivitiesandhigh-qualityemploymentintheeraofthe4thIndustrialRevolution.Thispaperdelvesintothecontent-basedindustryoftheRepublicofKorea1withaviewtobetterunderstandingthefactorsinfluencingitssuccessand,inparticular,roleoftheGovernmentoftheRepublicofpolicytosupportthecontent-basedindustryasanewengineofgrowthfortheThereportthusprovidesaninsiderviewofthewaysinwhichtheRepublicofKoreahasusedaveryspecifickindofculturalpolicytodrivethephenomenalcreativeindustriessuccessoftheKoreanWave,alsoreferredtoastheHallyueffect.Thenextchapterbrieflyreviewsdebatesaboutthepurposeandrolesofculturalpolicyinaninternationalcontext,andhowthecreativeindustriesandthedigitisationofculturalcontenthavechangedideas.Definingtheculturalsectorandthecreativeindustries:AnevolvingdebateDefiningtheculturalsectorandthecreativeindustriesinrelationtothepurposeandscopeofculturalpolicyisanevolvingdebate.Throsby(2010)identifiedthreecharacteristicsoftheculturaleconomy:(i)itinvolvessomeaspectofhumancreativityinproduction;(ii)itproducesgoodsandservicesthathavesymbolicvaluesandmeanings;and(iii)itcreatesintellectual(2008and2022)buildsonthisbyaddinglinkstotheknowledgeeconomyandtotechnology,whichisofparticularimportanceforthemorecommercialcreativeindustries.Originally,culturalpolicywaslimitedto“theartsandheritage”,whichwereoftenprovidedbynon-profitorganisations.Morecommercial,popularcultureformswereexcludedfromdiscussionofculturalwhichwasjustifiedprimarilythroughthepublicgoodnatureofartsandculture.globalisationanddigitisationshiftedthisdebatedramatically(Cunningham,2004).Originallyseenasapotentialthreattothearts,theconcentriccirclesmodellinkedartsandcultureandthecreativeindustriestogether,proposingthattheculturalsectors(literature,music,performingandvisualarts),providedthecontentforwiderandrelatedsectorswithmorecommercialapplications,suchasaudio-visualproduction,videogames,architectureanddesign2008).Thewhichmadeupthecreativeindustries,wereconnectedtothecoreculturalsectorinthattheydrewonthemforinspiration,andproducedoutputsthatcouldbeprotectedbycopyright,buttheydidnotnecessarilyhavehighlevelofsymbolicculturalcontent.Thecreativeindustriesaredefinedindifferentwaysbydifferentcountriesandorganisations,whichhasledtosomedebatesabouthowtomeasureandmanagethecreativeAlthoughthereareanumberofframeworks,thereisnointernationalconsensusonexactlywhattoinclude.IntheRepublicofKorea,theterm“creativeindustries”hasnotgainedsupport,andthesectorisrefereedtoinsteadasthe“contentindustry”orthe“content-basedindustry.”Lee(2020)pointsoutthat,intheRepublicofKorea,unlikeinotherwesterncountries,therehasnotbeenmuchdebateaboutwhatthecontentindustryincludesorexcludes.Ratherthandefiningsectorasbasedonsomephilosophicalconceptionofhumancreativity,thecontentindustryisapracticalpolicytermreferringtothetradableoutputsproducedbytheRegardlessofhowtheyaredefined,thecreativeorcontentindustrieshavenecessitatedashiftinthinkingaboutculturalpolicy(UNCTAD,2022).2CHAPTERTHEPURPOSEOFPOLICYTHEFORGOVERNMENTSUPPORTFORTHEARTSHOWGOVERNMENTSUPPORTANDCOPYRIGHTPOLICYFUELLEDTHEREPUBLICOFKOREA'SCREATIVEECONOMYI.THEPURPOSEOFCULTURALPOLICYANDTHERATIONALEFORGOVERNMENTSUPPORTFORTHEARTSHOWGOVERNMENTSUPPORTANDCOPYRIGHTPOLICYFUELLEDTHEREPUBLICOFKOREA'SCREATIVEECONOMYI.THEPURPOSEOFCULTURALPOLICYANDTHERATIONALEFORGOVERNMENTSUPPORTFORTHEARTS本报告来源于三个皮匠报告站（）,由用户Id:549683下载,文档Id:166640,下载日期:2024-11-17(2022a)notesthat,since2015,therehasbeenarapidincreaseinthenumberofcountriesthathaveinplacestrategiestosupportandregulatethecreativeindustries.Thisisespeciallybeingdrivenbydevelopingeconomies,whichhaveidentifiedtheirculturalcapitalasavaluableresource,notonlyforitsintrinsicandsocialvalues,butalsoforitseconomicandpoliticalpotential.Asthisreportshows,developingmiddleincomecountriesarenotonlyincreasinglylargeplayersintheproductionofdigitalonlinecontent,theyarealsosomeofthefastestgrowingmarkets.Whilethelargeeconomiesstilldominate,thetop25countriesintermsofcontent-basedindustryspendingnowalsoincludetheRepublicofKorea,India,Brazil,SouthAfricaandMexico.Someauthors(Ścibiorska-KowalczykandCichoń,2021;UNCTAD,2023)alsosuggestthattheculturalindustriesemergingeconomiesanimportant,andenvironmentallysustainable,pathtodevelopment,asanalternativetoenvironmentallydamagingextractionindustries.Inadditiontocontributingtoeconomicgrowthandimprovements,thecreativeindustriescanhelptobuildapositiveimageofacountryininternationalmarkets,canalsoincreasetourismandsoftOneofthemostpowerfultraditionalargumentsforthepublicsupportofarts,cultureandheritageisthatsectorcontributesgoodthingstosocietybeyondwhatprivateconsumersgain(Borowiecki,andHeilbrunforthcoming).Becauseatleastsomeofthesocialbenefitsthattheculturalsectorprovidesarepublic,producersareunabletocaptureenoughofthevalueofwhattheyproducetohaveanincentivetoprovidethesociallyoptimumquantityofartsandculture.Thewelfareeconomicssolutiontosuchmarketfailureisforgovernmenttostepinandfillthegapwitheitherdemandorsupplysidepolicies2010;2010).Moreresearchhasshownthatthecreativeindustriesareafast-growingeconomicsectorintheirownrightand,assuch,deservetheattentionandpublicsupportaccordedtootherimportanteconomicsectors.Inadditiontotheirculturalvalues,creativeindustriescanalsoplananimportantpartineconomicobjectives,suchasjobcreation,economicgrowth,tourismdevelopment,andinnovationsleadingtocommercialisationprofit.Inthepast,theeconomicimpactsoftheartswerenotregardedaslargeorimportant,andthesectorwasgenerallynotmeasuredinthiswiththeriseoftheculturalindustriesdiscourse,theeconomicvaluesassociatedwiththeartsarebeingregardedasincreasinglyimportant.PottsandCunningham(2008)describefourmodelsofthecreativeindustries,eachofwhichisassociatedparticularvalues,andwhichdemandadifferentkindofForexample,ifartsandcultureisregardedinthetraditionalwayofbeingapublicgoodthatprovidessocialbenefits(referredtoasthewelfaremodel),thentheappropriateculturalpolicyisgovernmentthecompetitivemodelofthecreativeindustriesfocusesonfirmsasdriversofeconomicgrowthandjobcreation,sotheresponseisindustrialpolicyregulationtopromotecompetitionandprovideaccesstofinancing.Thegrowthmodelseesthecreativeindustriesasadistinctsectorcontributingtoeconomicgrowth,jobsandtrade,sopolicyshouldbefocusedonpublicprivateinvestmentandsuccessismeasuredthroughfinancialreturns.theinnovationmodelseescreativeindustriesaspartofthenationalsystemofinnovation,whichgeneratesbothsocialandcommercialreturns.Althoughacknowledgedasrisky(inthesamewaythatinvestmentinresearchanddevelopmentis),theappropriatepublicpolicyresponseispublicinvestmenttogeneratebothdirectfinancialreturns,buttobenefitfrominnovationspill-oversintootherindustries.althoughthesedifferentconceptionsofthecreativeindustriesofferculturalpolicyoptions,theyaremoregenerallyapplicabletothemarket-friendlyapproachfollowedbytheglobalnorth.Lee(2020)contentsthatresearchonculturalpolicyhastendedtofocusonwesternconceptionsoftheroleofmarket,withmuchlessattentiongiventheothercontexts,likeAsiaandAfrica.Westernculturalpolicytendstofocusonmoregeneric,“horizontal”(ascomparedtotop-down)policies,whicharenotspecifictoanyparticularindustry(withthenotableexceptionoffilm).Suchpoliciesincludetheprovisionofinfrastructure,generalsupportforinnovation,balancedregionaldevelopment,andnon-specificeducationandhumancapitaldevelopmentthatareaimedatimprovinggeneralcompetitiveness.Itislefttothemarkettodeterminethe“winners”,andmarketisassumedtoleadtothemostefficientoutcome.Theroleofgovernmentisthuslimitedtocorrectingmarketfailures(inthecaseofpublicgoods)andprovidingabusiness-friendlyenvironmentthrough,forexample,providingaccesstofinanceandprotectingintellectualpropertyrights(Lee,2020).4HOWGOVERNMENTSUPPORTANDCOPYRIGHTPOLICYFUELLEDTHEREPUBLICOFKOREA'SCREATIVEECONOMYI.THEPURPOSEOFCULTURALPOLICYANDTHERATIONALEFORGOVERNMENTSUPPORTFORTHEARTSHOWGOVERNMENTSUPPORTANDCOPYRIGHTPOLICYFUELLEDTHEREPUBLICOFKOREA'SCREATIVEECONOMYI.THEPURPOSEOFCULTURALPOLICYANDTHERATIONALEFORGOVERNMENTSUPPORTFORTHEARTSPAGEPAGE5TheculturalpolicyoftheRepublicofKorea,focusesonhighlyspecificinterventionsinparticularindustries,whichareselectedforpromotionwithaviewtoincreasingtheirgrowthandexportearnings.Thereisnoassumptionbypolicymakersthatthemarketwillleadtotheefficientordesiredoutcomeswithoutstrongdirectionfromgovernment.theapproachoftheRepublicofKoreacanstillbeidentifiedasliberal,inthatitfocusedonreducingconstrictinglegislationandpromotingexportmarkets.withinthatthereisalsoastrongandcapabledevelopmentalstatewitha“handson”approachtothecreativeeconomy(RyooandJin,2020).Horizontalculturalpolicyhasbroaderaimsthanindustry-specificandthustendstobeevaluatedawiderrangeofcategoriesofvalue.Thesemayincludetheeconomicoutcomes(withindicatorssuchascontribution,employmentlevelsandindustryexportearnings),butalsosocialandintrinsicvalues.Lee(2020)pointsoutthatthismakeshorizontalculturalpolicymoredifficulttoevaluate:sincecreativeenterprisesarerecognizedashigh-riskindustrieswithvolatilemarketdemand,slowgrowthofeconomicindicatorsisthusnotasignofpolicyorindustryfailure,sincepublicspendingcanbejustifiedintermsofothersocial,non-marketvalues.TheculturalpolicyoftheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland,forexample,focusesoneducationandskillsprogrammes,thedevelopmentofregionalcreativeclusters,accesstofinance,andmoretheroleoftechnologyin“createch”,asthecornerstonesofitsculturalpolicy(Lee,2020;2023).IntheRepublicofculturalthefocusisnotsomuchonbalancedregionaldevelopmentbutonprovidingefficientandsuccessfulbusinessincubatorsinlargecities.ThedigitalcreativeeconomyandcopyrightHartley(2021)tellsacompellingstoryofhowthedigitisationofthecreativeindustriesintheUnitedStatesAmericachangedmarketstructureandculturalWhilecopyrightintheanaloguecreativesectorwasameansofsurvival,theriseofmultinationalonlineplatformsinthedigitalspaceofferedthemostlucrativemonopolyopportunities.Copyrightprotectstheoriginalwork,givingthecreatorarighttoincomeassociatedwithhisorheroutput–hecreativeindustriestherearealsopotentiallylargeropportunitiesforgeneratingincomefromcreativity.Forexample,incomecanbegeneratedthroughtheproductionand(online)saleofcopiesoftheoriginal,eachwithalowpriceandprofitmargin,butwhichismorethanmadeupforbythevolumeofsales,andthelow(orzero)marginalcostofproducingonemoreunitorReachinginternationalmarketsandgainingaudienceattentionisthebusinessoftheplatforms(Sanchez‐CartasandLeón,2021).Thedigitisationofcreativegoodsmayprovideanimportantopportunityfordevelopingcountriesintermsofprovidingculturalcontenttoonlinedistributorsandreachingnewmarkets,butasNwauche(2017)pointsonlyifintellectualproperty(IP)rightscanbeenforced.Culturalcontentprovidedonlinecaneasilybecopied,downloadedandshared.Inmanydevelopingcountries,IPandcopyrightframeworksareweak,andlevelscounterfeitingandpiracyarehigh.Thedigitisation(alsocalleddematerialisation)ofmuchculturaltraderequiresnotonlyachangeinculturalbutalsointradeTheexistenceandinternationalenforcementofcopyrights,performers’rightsandroyaltyfeesisvitaliflocalculturalcontentistobemonetisedeffectivelyandincomefromexportsearned(Fazio,thenegotiationofIPclausesintradeagreementsistime-consumingandCampiandDuenas(2018)findthattradeagreementswithIPclausesdelayimplementationbutareneverthelesseffectiveintradeflowsfromdevelopingtodevelopedcountries.TheRepublicofKoreahasbeenamemberoftheWorldOrganisation(WTO)since1995,andassuch,mustcomplywithinternationalregulations,suchastheAgreementonTrade-RelatedAspectsofIntellectualPropertyRights(TRIPS).Thisagreementtreatsinformationasagoodthatcanbetraded,butsomeauthorsarguethatthewayithasbeenimplementedadvantagesdevelopedcountries(Gilardietal.,2023).Strongcopyrightlegislationindevelopedmarkets,liketheUnitedStatesofAmerica,couldallowthesecountriestoaccessnewmarketsdevelopingcountrieswithoutnecessarilyhavingtoopentheirownmarkets(Gilardietal.,2023).InthecaseoftheculturalpolicyoftheRepublicofKorea,theimportanceofputtinginplacestrongandeffectivecopyrightpolicytobothpromoteandprotectculturalcontentwasrealisedearlyon.Thisreportdescribesrangeofmeasuresthatencompassnotonlylegislation,butalsoinstitutionswhichreducethecostsofandenforcingcopyright.Thiswasvitalforthesuccessoftheexport-orientatedculturalpolicyoftheRepublicofKorea.CulturalpolicyoftheRepublicofKoreaincontextAsinmanydevelopingcountries,theRepublicofKoreastartedwithaculturalpolicyfocusedonheritageandthepromotionofthepublicgoodsassociatedwiththearts,suchasnation-building(Otmazgin,2011).followsasimilarpatterntopost-apartheidculturalpolicyinSouthAfrica,whichwasoriginallydevelopedwithfocusonredressingtheimbalancesofthepastandbroadeningaccesstopublicculturalresources,especiallyforblackSouthAfricanslivinginperi-urbanareas.Intalkingaboutpost-colonial(orpost-conflict)societies,Mulcahy(2017)arguesthatanimportantpartofregainingpoliticalsovereigntyisthroughnationbuildingandlinkingidentitytoculturalheritage.ThiswasalsothestanceofearlyculturalpolicyoftheRepublicofKorea,aimedtosupportculturebecauseofitsimportancefornation-buildingandtoprotectlocalheritageandculturaltraditionsfromforeigninfluence(Otmazgin,2011).FromthethelivingconditionsofpeopleintheRepublicofKoreaimproveddramatically,andgovernmentcensorshipwasrelaxed,whichfuelledlocaldemandforculturalcontent,andopenedthewayforanewculturaldevelopmentplan“CultureforAll”in1990,whichbegantheshifttowardswhatRyooandJin(2020)describeasamoreliberalmarket-basedsystem.Thiswasalsothestartofinternationalinterestinthedevelopmentpotentialoftheculturalandcreativeindustries,andglobalisation.Lackingthenaturalresourceendowmentsofothercountries,andaspartoftheirrecoverypolicyafterthe1997financialcrisis,theGovernmentoftheRepublicofKoreafocusedtheireconomicpolicyon“developinghumancreativity,knowledge,technicalskillsandentrepreneurship”(Ścibiorska-KowalczykandCichoń,2021).Asimilarapproachhasbeentakeninotherdevelopingcountries.InSouthAfrica,forexample,thenewerRevisedWhitePaperonArts,CultureandHeritage(2017),hasshiftedculturalpolicytoincludeboththenon-marketculturalsectorandthecreativeindustriesandtheirpotentialforgrowth.thepolicystanceisstill“hori-zontal”,inthesensethatgovernmentinterventionisjustifiedascorrectinginstancesofmarketfailure,andsup-portinggeneralcompetitivenessforthecreativeindustries.In2023,theMasterplanfortheCreativeIndustrywasreleasedaspartofthenational“ReimaginedIndustrialStrategy”oftheThisdocumentdoesputinmoresector-specificpolicies,coveringmusic,fineartandcrafts,theaudio-visualsectorandbooksandpublish-ernment’sroleisstilloneofcoordinationandfacilitation,ratherthanprovidingstrongdirection.Malaysianculturalpolicyrecognisedthedualrolesoftheculturalsector–theeconomicpotentialofthecreativeindustries(contributingtoeconomicgrowth,jobcreation,innovationandexports)aswellasthebenefitsofdevelopmentalroleoftheculturalsector(nation-buildingandsocialcohesion).TheDasarInsutriKearifNegara(DIKN,thenationalculturalpolicyofMalaysia),waspromulgatedin2009,andwasdesignedtobeanculturalandcreativeindustriesdevelopmentpolicywhichcoordinatedgovernmentdepartmentsandprovidedfunding,skillsandinfrastructuredevelopmenttohelpgrowtheTheRepublicofKoreahasbeenoneoftheleadersinculturalcontentcreationanddirectedgovernmentsupportforspecificpartsofthecreativeindustries.Asthisreportshows,thispolicyhasachievedconsiderablesuccess,especiallyinincreasingtheshareofGDPproducedbythedigitalcontentcreationindustriesKowalczykandCichoń,2021).thereissomecriticismoftheverydirectiveculturalpolicyapproachfollowed.RyooandJin(2020)commentthatthemodelofstate-ledindustrialisationhadbeeninplacefortimeintheRepublicofKorea,aformof“developmentalism”thatinvolvesgovernmentinterventioninpartnershipwithchaebol(largefamily-ownedorganisations).ThisapproachhadworkedwellinthemanufacturingbutOtmazgin(2011)arguesthatthespecialcharacteristicsofthecreativeindustriesmeanthatthisapproachnotbesoeffectiveinthissectorasitdoesnotallowforthe“freedomandflexibilityneededforartisticandculturalcreation”.Aswithanypolicythatpickswinnersthereareundoubtedlymissedopportunities,thatis,artistsandcreativeswhoarenotidentifiedbygovernmentforwhateverreasonforsupportandpromotion.forthosewhoarechosen,thesignificantsupportprovidedinbranding,marketingandthedevelopmentofcontentlikelytoappealtointernationalaudiences,canmakeahugedifferencetotheirsuccess.RyooandJin(2020)pointoutthat,inbothmoreconservativeandmoreliberalgovernments,theculturalpolicyoftheRepublicofKoreahasprovidedconsistentfinancialandlegislativesupporttothecontentindustries.Conservativegovernmentshavethustendedtoemphasisetheeconomicvalueofthecreativeindustriesasjustificationfortheirsupport,ratherthananysocial,intrinsicorartisticvalues.Thishasbeenframedasanationaleffortfor“culturalindustriescatch-up”withthestateplayinganimportantentrepreneurialroleinidentifyingareasofpotentialandthensupportingthemthrougharangeofpolicies(Lee,2020).Culturaldistance,theHallyueffectandsoftpowerOneofthestrikingfeaturesoftheRepublicofcontentcreationhasbeentheirworldwideappealdespitesignificantlanguageandculturaldifferencesbetweenK-cultureandmanywesternconsumers.Fazio(2021)notesthatculturaltradeflowsaremoreevenlydistributedthanothertrade,andtheCreativeEconomyOutlookreport(2022)alsohighlightsthedevelopmentpotentialofculturaltradefordevelopingcountries,especiallysincedigitisationismakingthephysicaldistancebetweenmarketslessimportant.theoriesofinternationaltradealsoacknowledge“culturaldistance”,whichistheextenttoconsumersinothercountriescanunderstandandidentifywithculturalgoodsandservicesfromTheoriesrelatedtoculturaldistanceexplaintheextenttowhichconsumersintheimportingcountryidentifywithandunderstandtheculturalcontentingoodsandservicesfromtheexportingForexample,someresearchhasfoundthatcountriesthatspeakthesamelanguageandsharepasthistorytendtohavesimilarculturaltastes,andarethusmorelikelytotradeinculturalgoodsandservices(Disdieretal.,2010).Inastudyonculturaldistanceandtheboxofficesuccessofinternationalfilms,Jane(2021)usestheoriesof“embeddedculturalcontent”and“culturaldiscount”toexplainwhyconsumersmaypreferdomesticratherthanforeignculturalofferings.Thefindingsshowthat,asculturaldistanceincreases,boxofficeearningsdecline.therelationshipappearstobeU-shaped:pastacertainlevelofculturaldistance,consumersseemtoregard“distantcultureembeddedinthemovietobenovelandinteresting”andboxofficeearningsriseagain.WhatmakesthecaseoftheRepublicofKoreasointerestingisthatveryfewoftheattributeswhichhaduntilrecentlyexplainedmuchof