OECD发布数字休闲与学习关系报告

OECDEducationPolicyPerspectives

PISA2022

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Wholestudentdevelopmentandstudents’digitalleisureoutsideofschool

BETTERPOLlcIESFORBETTERLIVES

Disclaimers

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Abstract

Thispolicypaperexamineshowmuchtime15-year-oldstudentsdedicatetodigitalleisureoutsideofschoolandexplorestherelationshipbetweendigitalleisureandstudents’learningoutcomesandwell-beingatschool.Thepaperfindsthatwhendigitalleisuretakesplaceoutsideschoolhours,itisonlyafter4hoursadaythattherelationshipsbetweentimespentondigitalleisureandstudents’mathematicsscoresandsenseofbelongingatschoolarenegative.Studentswhobalanceamoderateuseofdigitaldevicesforleisurewithamoderatetimespentonlearningoutsideofschoolhavebothhigheracademicandwell-beingoutcomesthantheirpeers.

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Acknowledgements

ThispolicypaperistheproductofacollaborativeeffortbetweenthecountriesandeconomiesparticipatinginPISA,thenationalandinternationalexpertsandinstitutionsworkingwithintheframeworkofthePISAConsortium,andtheOECDSecretariat.

ThispolicypaperwasdraftedbySoumayaMaghnouj,withstatisticalandanalyticalsupportfromGwénaëlJacotin,undertheguidanceofMiyakoIkeda.ItwaseditedbyClaraYoung.AndreasSchleicher,YuriBelfali,LukaBoeskens,FrancescaGottschalk,ClaireShewbridgeandMihoTagumafromtheOECDDirectorateforEducationandSkillsandmembersofthePISAGoverningBoardprovidedvaluablefeedback.

AdministrativesupportwasprovidedbySarahChristofides.SophieLimogesco-ordinatedtheproductionofthereportandprovidedcommunicationssupport.

ThedevelopmentofthepaperwassteeredbythePISAGoverningBoard,chairedbyMicheleBruniges(Australia),withManualPalacios(Brazil)andCarmenTovarSánchez(Spain)asvicechairs.

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Tableofcontents

Abstract 1

Acknowledgements 2

Tableofcontents 3

Reader’sguide 4

Executivesummary 7

Introduction 10

Digitalleisuretimeandstudents’academicperformanceandsense

ofbelongingatschool 23

Excessivedigitalleisuretimeandstudentengagementwith

learningandschooling 29

Excessivedigitalleisuretimeanddigitalanxiety 34

Conclusion 39

References 44

AnnexA.Technicalnotesontheanalysisinthispaper 46

AnnexB.Resultsforcountriesandeconomies 48

Notes 50

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Reader’sguide

ThePISA2022datasetincludesdatafrom81countriesandeconomies.Thetestwasoriginallyplannedtotakeplacein2021butwasdelayedbyoneyearduetotheCOVID-19pandemic.Theexceptionalcircumstancesthroughoutthisperiod,includinglockdownsandschoolclosuresinmanyplaces,ledtooccasionaldifficultiesincollectingsomedata.WhilethevastmajorityofcountriesandeconomiesmetPISA’stechnicalstandards(available

online

),asmallnumberdidnot.InpriorPISArounds,countriesandeconomiesthatfailedtocomplywiththestandards,andwhichthePISAAdjudicationGroupjudgedtobeconsequential,couldfaceexclusionfromthemainpartofreporting.However,giventheunprecedentedsituationcausedbythepandemic,PISA2022resultsincludedatafromallparticipatingeducationsystems,includingthosewheretherewereissuessuchaslowresponserates(seeAnnexesA2andA4).

Adjudicatedentitiesnotmeetingthesamplingstandards

Theresultsof13adjudicatedentities(i.e.countries,economiesandregionswithincountries)listedbelowwillbereportedwithannotations.Cautionisrequiredwheninterpretingestimatesforthesecountries/economiesbecauseoneormorePISAsamplingstandardslistedbelowwerenotmet.

The13entitiesarecomprisedofthetwofollowinggroups:

(i)entitiesthatsubmittedtechnicallystronganalyses,whichindicatedthatmorethanminimalbiaswasmostlikelyintroducedintheestimatesduetolowresponserates(fallingbelowPISAstandards):Canada,Ireland,NewZealand,theUnitedKingdomandScotland;

(ii)entitiesthatdidnotmeetoneormorePISAsamplingstandardsandforwhomisnotpossibletoexcludethepossibilityofmorethanminimalbiasbasedontheinformationavailableatthetimeofdataadjudication:Australia,Denmark,HongKong(China),Jamaica,Latvia,theNetherlands,PanamaandtheUnitedStates.

Anasterisk(*)nexttothenameofacountryoreconomyindicatesthatcautionisrequiredwheninterpretingestimatesbecauseoneormorePISAsamplingstandardswerenotmet.

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Dataunderlyingthefigures

ThedatareferredtointhispaperarepresentedinAnnexB.Twosymbolsareusedtodenotemissingdata:

•cThereweretoofewobservationstoprovidereliableestimates(i.e.therewerefewerthan30studentsorfewerthan5schoolswithvaliddata).

•mDataarenotavailable.Therewasnoobservationinthesample;thesedatawerenotcollectedbythecountryoreconomy;orthesedatawerecollectedbutsubsequentlyremovedfromthepublicationfortechnicalreasons.

Coverage

Thispublicationfeaturesdatafrom81countriesandeconomies,includingallOECDMembercountriesexceptLuxembourgand44nonOECDMembercountriesandeconomies(seemapofPISAcountriesandeconomiesin“WhatisPISA?”).Specificterritorialdisclaimersandfootnotesapplicabletothispublicationareincludedinthecopyrightpage(p.2).

Thedesignation“Ukrainianregions(18of27)”referstothe18PISA-participatingjurisdictionsofUkraine:CherkasyOblast,KirovohradOblast,PoltavaOblast,VinnytsiaOblast,ChernihivOblast,KyivOblast,SumyOblast,theCityofKyiv,ZhytomyrOblast,OdesaOblast,ChernivtsiOblast,Ivano-FrankivskOblast,KhmelnytskyiOblast,LvivOblast,RivneOblast,TernopilOblast,VolynOblastandZakarpattiaOblast.DuetoRussia’slarge-scaleaggressionagainstUkraine,thefollowingninejurisdictionswerenotcovered:DnipropetrovskOblast,DonetskOblast,KharkivOblast,LuhanskOblast,ZaporizhzhiaOblast,KhersonOblast,MykolaivOblast,theAutonomousRepublicofCrimeaandthecityofSevastopol.

Internationalaverages

TheOECDaveragecorrespondstothearithmeticmeanoftherespectivecountryestimates.Itwascalculatedformostindicatorspresentedinthispaper.

Inthispublication,theOECDaverageisgenerallyusedwhenthefocusisoncomparingperformanceacrosseducationsystems.Inthecaseofsomecountries,datamaynotbeavailableforspecificindicators,orspecificcategoriesmaynotapply.Readersshould,therefore,keepinmindthattheterm“OECDaverage”referstotheOECDMembercountriesincludedintherespectivecomparisons.Incaseswheredataarenotavailableordonotapplyforallsub-categoriesofagivenpopulationorindicator,the“OECDaverage”isnotnecessarilycomputedonaconsistentsetofcountriesacrossallcolumnsofatable.

Highincomecountries/economiesaveragecorrespondstoarithmeticmeanofcountriesoreconomieswithGNIpercapitasuperiortoUSD13845inyear2022.Similarly,middleincomecountries/economiesaveragecorrespondstoaverageofcountriesoreconomieswithaGNIpercapitabetweenUSD1136andUSD13205inyear2022(source:WorldBankAnalyticalClassification,presentedintheWorldDevelopmentIndicators,

/knowledgebase/articles/378834-how-does-

the-world-bank-classify-countries

).ThispaperusesthesameclassificationasPISA2022VolumeV(seeTableV.B1.7.1).

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Roundingfigures

Becauseofrounding,somefiguresintablesmaynotaddupexactlytothetotals.Totals,differencesandaveragesarealwayscalculatedonthebasisofexactnumbersandareroundedonlyaftercalculation.

Allstandarderrorsinthispublicationhavebeenroundedtooneortwodecimalplaces.Wherethevalue0.0or0.00isshown,thisdoesnotimplythatthestandarderroriszero,butthatitissmallerthan0.05or0.005,respectively.

Reportingstudentdata

Thepaperuses“15-year-oldstudents”asshorthandforthePISAtargetpopulation.PISAcoversstudentswhoareagedbetween15years3monthsand16years2monthsatthetimeofassessmentandwhoareenrolledinschoolandhavecompletedatleast6yearsofformalschooling,regardlessofthetypeofinstitutioninwhichtheyareenrolled,andwhethertheyareinfull-timeorparttimeeducation,whethertheyattendacademicorvocationalprogrammes,andwhethertheyattendpublicorprivateschoolsorforeignschoolswithinthecountry.

Reportingschooldata

Theprincipalsoftheschoolsinwhichstudentswereassessedprovidedinformationontheirschools’characteristicsbycompletingaschoolquestionnaire.Whereresponsesfromschoolprincipalsarepresentedinthispublication,theyareweightedsothattheyareproportionatetothenumberof15-year-oldsenrolledintheschool.

Focusingonstatisticallysignificantdifferences

Thispaperdiscussesonlystatisticallysignificantdifferencesorchanges.Thesearedenotedindarkercoloursinfiguresandinboldfontintables.Unlessotherwisespecified,thesignificancelevelissetto5%.

Abbreviationsusedinthisreport

ESCSPISAindexofeconomic,social,andculturalstatus GDPGrossdomesticproduct ICTInformationandcommunicationstechnology Scoredif.Score-pointdifference

S.D.Standarddeviation

Standarderror

Percentage-pointdifference

%dif.

S.E.

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Executivesummary

ThisPISApolicypaperdiscussestherelationshipbetweentheintensityofonlineleisuretimeandstudents’well-beingandtheiracademicperformance.ItbuildsuponearlierfindingsfromPISA2018andPISA2022andinvestigatesinmoredepthhow15-year-oldstudentsusetheirleisuretime.Itexploresalsothetrade-offstheymakebetweendigitalleisureandlearningontheonehand,anddigitalleisureandotherusesoftimeoutsideoflearning.Astimeisfinite,howstudentsbalancetheiruseoftimeisimportantfortheiroveralldevelopmentandlearning.Thispapershedslightonsomeofthesetrade-offsinthedigitalagetosupportwholestudentdevelopment.

Students’digitalleisurehabitsoutsideofschool

Fifteen-year-oldstudentsspendanaverageof16%oftheirwakingtimeonaweekdayondigitalleisureactivitiesoutsideofschool.Onaverage,oneinfourstudentsinOECDandhigh-incomecountriesandeconomiesspendmorethanfourhoursondigitalleisureactivitiesbeforeorafterschoolperday.Thissharevariesfromlessthan10%inParaguay,VietNam,Peru,JapanandCambodiatoover40%inPolandandEstonia.

Thereisatrade-offbetweentimespentonlearninganddigitalleisuretimeoutsideofschool.Countriesinwhichstudentsspendmoretimeondigitalleisureoutsideofschooltendtoreportloweraveragehomeworktimethanothercountries.Forexample,studentsinFinlandreportedoneofthelowestaverageamountsoftimespentonhomeworkperdayamongPISA-participatingcountriesandeconomies(0.8hours)andoneofthehighestaverageamountsoftimeondigitaldevicesforleisurebeforeorafterschool(threehours).Withincountriesandeconomies,studentswhospendanexcessiveamountoftimeondigitalleisureactivitiesbeforeorafterschoolspendslightlylesstimeonaverageonhomeworkthanthosewhospendlesstimeondigitalleisureactivities.

Additionally,therearenotabletrade-offsinhowstudentsusetheirnonlearningtimeoutsideofschool.Spendingoverfourhoursadayondigitalleisureactivitiesisassociatedwithexercisinglessbeforeorafterschoolandhelpingoutathomebeforeorafterschoolslightlylessoften.Atrade-offbetweendigitalleisureandpart-timeemploymentisalsoobservedinsomecountriesandeconomies,andonaverageacrossOECDcountries.StudentswhospendmorethanfourhoursadayondigitalleisureactivitiesalsoparticipateslightlylessinweeklycreativeactivitiesinsomePISAparticipatingcountriesandeconomies.Thesetrade-offsdonotindicateacause-and-effectrelationship.It’salsopossiblethatstudentswhospendtimeonothernon-learningactivitiesoutsideschoolsimplyhavelesstimeavailablefordigitalleisure.

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Digitalleisuretimeandstudents’academicperformanceandsenseofbelongingatschool

Contrarytodigitalleisureinschool,spendingtimeondigitaldevicesforleisureoutsideofschool,whenitdoesnotinterferedirectlywithlearningtime-forexampleatthesametimeastimededicatedtodoinghomework,isnotnecessarilyassociatedwithlowerperformancescoresandwell-beingatschool.Moderateusersofdigitaldevicesforleisure(twotofourhoursperdayoutsideofschool)tendtohavehighermathematicsperformancethanthosewhospendeitherlessormoretimeondigitaldevicesforleisure.ThiscurvilinearrelationshipisobservedacrossPISA2022participatingcountries,regardlessofthenationalaveragetimespentondigitalleisureoutsideofschool.Forexample,Estonia,theOECDcountrywiththehighestaveragetimeondigitalleisureactivitiesbeforeorafterschool(3.7hours)andJapan,withthelowestOECDaveragedigitalleisuretime(onehour),bothshowthesameshapeoftherelationshipbetweendigitalleisuretimeandperformance,withtippingpointsattwoandfourhours.

Moreover,studentswhospendanexcessiveamountoftimeondigitaldevicesforleisure(overfourhoursperdayoutsideofschool)havealowersenseofbelongingatschool.However,differentrelationshipisobservedbetweendigitalleisuretimeoutsideofschoolandoveralllifesatisfaction.Studentswhospendmorethantwohoursadayondigitalleisureactivitiesarelesssatisfiedwiththeirlivesoverallthanthosewhospendlesstime.

Excessivedigitalleisuretimeandstudentengagementwithlearningandschooling

Studentswhospendanexcessiveamountoftimeondigitalrecreationaremorelikelytobedisengagedfromschoolthanthosewithmorerestraineduse.Excessiveusersaremorelikelytoskiporarrivelatetoschoolthanthosewithmoderateuse.Forexample,inKoreaandVietNam,studentswhospendatleastfourhoursondigitaldevicesforleisurebeforeorafterschoolaretwicemorelikelytoskipschoolthantheirpeersafteraccountingforsocio-economicstatusandmathematicsperformance.

Spendingexcessivetimeondigitalrecreationisassociatednotonlywithlowerstudents’engagementinschoolactivitiesbutalsowithlowermotivationtolearn.Studentswhospend4hoursormoreondigitaldevicesforleisurebeforeorafterschoolarelesslikelytoreportlovingtolearnthingsinschoolonaverageacrossOECDcountries.

Excessivedigitalleisuretimeanddigitalanxiety

Excessiveusersofdigitaldevicesforrecreationsuffermorefromdigitalanxietythanmoremoderateusers.Digitalanxietyisdefinedasfeelinganxiousornervousmorethanhalfofthetimewhenstudents’digitaldeviceisnotnearby.Amongthosespendinganexcessiveamountoftimeondigitalleisureactivities(morethanfourhoursbeforeorafterschool),overaquarterofstudentsreportedadependencyon,andanxietyrelatedto,theirdigitaldevice.InTürkiye,forexample,abouthalf(45%)ofstudentswhospendfourhoursormoreondigitaldevicesbeforeorafterschoolreportedsufferingfromdigitalanxiety.Digitalanxietyaccountsforsomeoftheobserveddifferenceinperformanceandsenseofbelongingbetweenthesetwogroups.

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Students’overalldevelopmentandpolicytakeaways

Studentswhobalanceamoderateuseofdigitaldevicesforleisurewithamoderatetimespentonhomework,tendtohavebothhigheracademicandwell-beingoutcomesthantheirpeers.However,thosewhospendamoderatetimeonhomeworkbutanexcessiveamountofdigitalleisuretimereportalowerlifesatisfactionthantheirpeerswithmoremoderateuseofdigitaldevicesforleisure.Thisindicatesthat,ashoursinadayarelimited,inordertomaintainmoderatelearningtimeoutsideofschools,studentswhospendexcessivetimeondigitalleisuremaybesacrificingotheractivitiesthatareessentialtotheirwell-being.Forexample,thosewhospendanexcessiveamountoftimeondigitalleisurehavelittletimetodedicatetophysicalexerciseoutsideofschool,particularlyiftheystrivetospendatleastamoderateamountoftimeonhomework.

Thispaper'sfindingscanbesummarisedinthreekeytakeawaysforpolicyandpractice:

1.Provideguidancetostudentsandfamiliesonstrategiestoregulatethetimespentondigitalleisureactivitiesoutsideofschool.

2.Provideadditionalsupportandtoolstostudentsfromdisadvantagedhouseholdstoaccessandregulatetheirdigitalleisuretimeoutsideofschool.

3.Supportandstimulateparticipationinofflineleisureactivitiesoutsideschoolsuchassports,music,andarts,whichareimportanttostudentsphysicalandmentalwell-being.

Finally,asisthecasewithallPISAanalyses,itisworthrememberingthatthispaperdoesnotestablishcausalitybetweendigitalleisuretimeoutsideofschoolandschool-relatedoutcomes.Furtheranalysisandstudyareneededtounderstandthecausesoftheobservedrelationshipsbetweendigitalleisuretimeandstudents’performanceandwell-being.

Somefurtherareasofinvestigationareidentified:

1.Furtherinvestigatetherelationshipbetweenmoderateuseofdigitalleisureoutsideofschoolandwell-being.

2.Furtherinvestigatetherelationshipbetweenanxietyanddigitalleisuretime.

3.Furtherinvestigatetherelationshipbetweendigitalleisureatschoolandlearningandwell-beingoutcomesatschool.

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Introduction

Teenagedigitalrecreation,suchasvideogamingandsocialmedia,isatopicofon-goingdebateineducationpolicy.InseveralOECDcountriesandbeyond,therehavebeenincreasingproposalstolimitteenagers’useofdigitaldevicesfornon-learningpurposes(seeBox1.3).Somestudiesandofficialadvisoriessuggestthatleisureuseofdigitaldevicesmaybelinkedtochallengesinadolescents’cognitivedevelopmentandwell-being(Firthetal.,2019[1];TheU.S.SurgeonGeneral’sAdvisory,2023[2]).Atthesametime,digitalleisureiswidespreadamongadolescentsandplaysanimportantroleinadolescents’socializationandleisure,makingitdifficulttoregulateorrestrictaccesswithoutcoordinatedeffortsamongpolicymakers,schools,andcaregivers.PISA2022datathrowlightontherelationshipbetweendigitalleisureand15-year-oldstudents’learningoutcomesandwell-being.Thispolicypaperanalysestheserelationshipsandexplorespotentialmechanismsbehindtheobservedpatterns.

Section1describesstudents’digitalleisurehabitsoutsideofschoolandthetrade-offsbetweendigitalleisuretimeandotherusageoftimeoutsideofschool.Wecategoriseusersofdigitalleisureactivitiesoutsideofschoolsinthreecategoriesbasedontheintensityofuse.Lowusersofdigitalleisurearedefinedasthosespendinguptotwohoursperdayondigitalleisureactivitiesoutsideofschool,moderateusersarethosewhospendmorethantwoanduptofourhoursadayondigitalleisureactivitiesoutsideofschool,andexcessiveusersarethosewhospendabovefourhours.TherelativeintensitiesweredefinedbasedontheOECDaveragetimespentondigitalleisurebeforeorafterschool(2.6hours)andonweekenddays(3.9hours).

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Box1.1.DigitalleisureoutsideofschoolinPISA

PISA,sdefinitionofdigitalleisuretime

PISA2022definesdigitalleisuretimeastheself-reportedtimestudentsspendondigitaldevicesforleisurepurposes.Digitaldevicesincludeequipmentcapableofreceiving,sending,andstoringdigitalcontent,suchaslaptops,tablets,ormobilephones.InthePISA2022studentquestionnaire,studentsreportedthenumberofhourstheyspendondigitaldevicesforleisureusingacategoricaltimevariable.Theyprovidedseparateestimatesfortimespentondigitaldevicesforleisureonschooldays(beforeorafterschool)andonweekenddays.

Additionally,incountriesandeconomiesthatadministeredtheoptionalPISA2022ICTquestionnaire,studentsalsoreportedthenumberofhoursspentonspecificdigitalleisureactivities—suchasplayingvideogames,browsingsocialnetworks,surfingtheinternet,andcommunicatingorsharingdigitalcontent.AsinthePISA2022studentquestionnaire,studentsself-reportedtheirtimeusingacategoricaltimevariable,distinguishingbetweenusageduringschooldaysandweekenddays.

Othermeasuresofdigitalleisuretime

Otherstudiesusedifferentdefinitionsandapproachestomeasurehowmuchtimeadolescentsspendondigitaldevicesforleisure.“Screentime”isaconceptoftenusedinresearchondigitalleisureandisdefinedmorebroadlythanthePISAdefinitionofdigitaldeviceuse.Forexample,the2019CanadianHealthSurveyonChildrenandYouthmeasuresrecreationalscreentime,whichreferstothetimechildrenandadolescentsspendseatedinfrontofascreen—suchasamobiledevice,computer,tablet,videogameconsole,ortelevision(Toigoetal.,2025[3]).Similarly,areportcommissionedbytheFrenchGovernmentin2024onthechildren’sscreentimeincludesinthediscussion,timespentontelevision(FrenchExpertGrouponscreentimeandyouth,2024[4]).

Source:(FrenchExpertGrouponscreentimeandyouth,2024[4])(Toigoetal.,2025[3])

Howmuchtimedo15-year-oldsspendondigitalleisureactivities?

Fifteen-year-oldstudentsspendanaverageof16%oftheirwakingtimeonaweekdayondigitalleisureactivitieswhennotinschool

Onatypicalschoolweekday,a15-year-oldinanOECDcountryspendsanaverageof16%oftheirnon-sleepingtimeondigitaldevicesforleisureoutsideofschool(assuminganaveragesleeptimeofeighthours)(SeeFigure1.1).Thisequatestohalfofthetimetheyspendonregularlessonsinschoolwhichis30%ofthetotalawaketime.Onaverage,thisoutstripstimespentonhomework.OnaverageacrossOECDcountries,andacrosshigh-incomecountriesandeconomiesparticipatinginPISA,adolescentsspend2hoursand40minutesadayondigitaldevicesforleisurebeforeorafterschool,whiletheaveragetimespentonhomeworkisanhourandahalf.Onweekends,theaverageamountofleisuretimespentondigitaldevicesincreasesbyhalf,reachingalmostfourhoursadayinbothOECDandhigh-incomecountriesandeconomies(SeePISA2022VolumeIITableII.B1.5.62).

TheaverageamountoftimespentondigitaldevicesforleisureisslightlyloweramongPISA-participatingmiddle-incomecountriesandeconomies(2hoursadaybeforeorafterschoolintheschoolweek;3.3hoursadayontheweekend)(SeePISA2022VolumeTableII.B1.5.62).Thismightbeexplainedbydifferencesinaccesstosometypesofdigitaldevicesbetweencountries(OECD,2024[5]).

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Theprevalenceofdigitalleisureinadolescents’lifeisa