高等教育语言学课件chapter6languageandcognition

Chapter

SixLanguage

andCognition1.

What

is

Cognition?

什么是认知？Mental

processes

of

anindividual,

informationprocessingMental

process

or

facultyof

knowing,

includingawareness,

perception,reasoning,

andjudgment.2Three

approaches

to

the

study

of

language

andcognition:The

formal

approach:

addresses

the

structuralpatterns,

including

the

study

of

morphological,syntactic,

and

lexical

structure.The

psychological

approach:

looks

atlanguagefrom

the

perspective

of

general

cognitive

systemsranging

from

perception,

memory,

attention

toreasoning. PSYCHOLOGICAL

LINGUISTICS心理语言学The

conceptual

approach:addresses

how

languagestructures

(processes

&

patterns)

conceptualcontent. COGNITIVE

LINGUISTICS

认知语言学32.Psycholinguistics4Psychological

aspects

of

languagePsychological

states

and

mental

activitywiththe

use

oflanguageLanguage

acquisition,

language

production&comprehensionThe

relationship

between

language

andthoughtStructural

linguisticsCognitive

psychologyAnthropologyNeurosciencesRelated

fields5Language

acquisition

(L1

/

L2)Language

comprehensionLanguageproductionLanguagedisordersLanguage

andThoughtNeurocognitionSix

subjects

of

research62.1 Language

Acquisition7Language

acquisition:

one

of

thecentral

topics

in

psycholinguisticsAll

normal

humans

speak,

nononhuman

animal

does.Children’s

acquisition

of

languagehasreceived

much

attention.Scholars

kept

diaries

of

children’sspeech

for

their

research

data.Holophrastic

stage

(from

two

months

to

ayear)Language’s

sound

patternsPhonetic

distinctions

in

parents’

language.One-word

stage:

objects,

actions,

motions,routines.8Two-word

stage:

around

18

monthsPurposeRequestRequestInformingWarningWarningBraggingNamingChild MaturespeakerutteranceWantcookie I

want

a

cookieMoremilk I

want

some

more

milkJoe

see I

(Joe)

see

youMy

cup This

is

my

cupMommy

chair This

chair

belongs

to

MBig

boy I

ama

bigboyRed

car That

car

is

redThat

car That

is

a

carNaming9ChildutteranceMaturespeakerPurposeNo

sleepI

don’t

want

to

go

to

sleepRefusalNottiredI

am

nottiredRefusalWheredoll?Where

is

thedoll?QuestionTruck

tableThe

truck

is

on

thetableInformingDaddy

runDaddy

is

runningInformingJoe

pushI

(Joe)

pushed

(the

cat)InformingPush

catI

pushed

the

carInformingGive

candyGive

me

the

candyRequest10Three-word-utterance

stageGive

doggie

paper.Put

truck

window.Tractor

go

floor.11Fluent

grammatical

conversation

stage12Embed

one

constituent

inside

another:Give

doggie

paper.

Give

big

doggie

paper.Use

more

function

words:

missing

functionwords

and

inflection

in

the

beginning

butgood

use

(90%)

by

the

age

of

3,

with

a

fullrange

of

sentencetypes.All

parts

of

all

language

are

acquired

beforethe

child

turnsfour.2.2

Language

comprehension13Mental

lexicon:information

about

theproperties

of

words,

retrievablewhenunderstanding

languageFor

example,

we

may

use

morphological

rulesto

decompose

a

complex

word

like

rewritablethe

first

few

times

we

encounter

it

and

afterseveral

exposures

we

may

store

and

access

it

asa

unit

orword.It

means

that

frequency

of

exposure

determinesour

ability

to

recall

stored

instances.Connectionism:

readers

use

the

same

systemof

links

between

spelling

units

and

soundunits

to

generate

the

pronunciations

ofwritten

words

like

tove

and

to

access

thepronunciations

of

familiar

words

like

stove,or

words

that

are

exceptions

tothesepatterns,

like

love.Similarity

and

frequency

play

importantroles

in

processing

and

comprehendinglanguage,

with

the

novel

itemsbeingprocessed

based

on

their

similarity

to

theknown

ones.14An

initial

step

in

understanding

anymessageHow

do

we

go

about

recognizing

words

?As

soon

as

people

hear

speech,

theystartnarrowing

down

the

possible

words

that

theymay

be

hearing.

A

word

is

identified

as

soonas

there

is

only

one

possibility

left.

speakCohort

theory:Marslen-Wilson&Welsh

(1978)The

first

few

phonemes

of

aspokenword

activate

a

set

of

wordcandidatesthat

are

consistent

with

theinput.Wordrecognition15This

account

is

referred

to

as

the

COHORTTHEORY(集群理论)

and

hypothesizes

thatauditory

word

recognition

begins

with

theformation

of

a

group

of

words

at

theperceptionof

the

initial

sound

and

proceeds

sound

bysoundwith

the

cohort

of

words

decreasing

as

moresounds

are

perceived.16交股模型：词辨认的交股模型是Marslen-Wilson提出来的，它包括两个阶段。在词辨认的第一个阶段里，一个词的声

学/语音信息激活了记忆中和它相近的词，所以如果这个词是“drive”，所有以[d]开始的词，如“dive,drink,date,dunk”等，都会被激活。这些激活的词构成一个“股”；这些交股的词是在一个目标词的声学信息的基础上提取的，并没有受到其他层面的分析所影响。一个交股结构产生后，词辨认的第二个阶段就开始了。在第二阶段里，所有可能的信息都会影响目标词的选择，这些交互作用的信息资源都起到排除那些和交股不相似的的词的作用。例如进一步的声学/语音信息可能排除一些交股的词，如“date”和“dunk”，

而高层次的信息源也可能产生，把别的语义和句法上不合适的词，如“dive”和“drink”，加以排除。最后才辨认到目标词。(桂诗春)17LanguageComprehension18Factors

involved

in

word

recognition:Frequency

effect

(频率效应)（词频效应）

:One

of

the

most

important

factors

that

affectsword

recognition

ishow

frequentlythewordis

used

in

a

given

discourse

or

context.Frequency

effect

describes

the

additional

easewith

which

a

word

is

accessed

due

to

its

morefrequent

usage

in

the

L.better,

TV,

debtor,

mortgage19RECENCY

EFFECTS

(近期效应)（近现率）:People

recognize

a

word

faster

when

they

havejust

heard

it

or

read

it

than

when

they

have

notrecently

encounteredit.20Recency

effects

describe

the

additional

easewith

which

a

word

is

accessed

due

to

itsrepeated

occurrence

in

the

discourse

orcontext.例如在奥运会期间一些体育项目成为报章杂志和人们交谈的热点，成了高频词，辨认的阈限因而就降低。但是奥运会后，它们又慢慢降温，辨认的阈限又升高。所以近现效应实际上是动态的频率效应。Another

factor

that

is

involved

in

wordrecognition

isCONTEXT.People

recognize

a

word

more

readily

when

thepreceding

words

provide

anappropriatecontext

for

it.This

is

the

aorta.The

heart

surgeon

carefully

cut

into

the

wall

ofthe

rightaorta.21语境可以促进词的辨认，解决词的歧义。The

car

turned

right.One

mechanism

that

has

been

proposed

to

account

forthis

kind

of

context

effect

is

a

SEMANTICASSOCIATION

NETWORK(语义关联网络).

It

represents

the

relationship

between

varioussemantically

relatedwords.

Word

recognition

isthought

to

be

faster

when

other

members

of

theassociation

network

are

provided

in

the

discourse.辨认有语义联系的词比无意义联系的词要快。butter-bread,

nurse-doctor等22Lexical

ambiguityHow

areambiguous

wordsunderstood?Twotheories:1)

All

the

meanings

associated

withthe

word

areaccessed2)

Only

one

meaning

isaccessedinitially.23Are

you

engaged

?My

friend

drove

me

to

thebank.Please

give

me

a

camel.24The

clerk(entering):

Are

you

engaged?Augustus:

What

business

is

that

of

yours?However,

if

you

will

take

the

trouble

to

readthe

society

papers

for

this

week,

you

will

seethat

I

am

engaged

to

the

Honourable

Lucy25Popham,

youngest

daughter

of.

.

.The

clerk:

That

isn’t

what

I

mean.

Can

you

seeafemale?Augustus:

Of

course,

I

can

see

a

female

aseasily

as

a

male.

Do

you

suppose

I

am

blind?(George

Bernard

Shaw:

Augustus

Does

His

Bit)LanguageComprehension26An

experiment:When

people

are

asked

to

finish

a

sentence,

theytake

longer

when

the

fragment

to

befinishedcontains

an

ambiguous

word

than

when

theambiguous

word

is

replaced

by

anunambiguousterm.

After

taking

theright

turn

at

theintersection… After

taking

the

left

turn

at

theintersectionThis

delay

suggests

that

all

meanings

ofambiguous

words

are

accessed

and

that

time

has

tobe

taken

to

decide

among

them.Other

experiments

suggest

that

under

somecircumstances,

only

one

meaning

is

initially

accessed.The

frequency

and

context

effects

have

beenshownto

be

important

here.First,

if

one

of

the

meanings

is

much

morefrequentthan

the

other,

people

tend

to

assume

that

the

wordhas

the

more

frequent

meaning.

ChairThe

semantic

context

effect

also

plays

a

significantpart

in

deciding

which

meaning

is

the

mostappropriate.

Bug

(spy,

spiders

androaches)27Comprehension

of

sentences28Once

a

word

has

been

identified,

it

is

used

toconstruct

a

syntactic

structure.

In

some

casesthisis

quite

straightforward.

The

jealous

woman

wentaway.However,

there

are

complications

due

to

theambiguity

of

individual

words

and

to

thedifferent

possible

ways

that

words

can

be

fit

intophrases.Sometimes

there

is

no

way

to

determine

whichstructure

and

meaning

a

sentence

has.Syntactic

ambiguity

Different

possible

ways

in

whichwords

can

be

fit

intophrases.The

cop

saw

the

spywith

thebinoculars.The

prepositional

phrase

with

thebinoculars

is

ambiguous. It

can

either

be

acomplement

of

the

verb

see

or

be

part

of

the

nounphrase.Some

ambiguities

are

due

to

the

ambiguouscategoryof

some

of

the

words

in

the

sentence.

the

deserttrains(men

to

be

hardy,

seldom

run

on

time)29John

painted

the

car

in

thegarage.30May

likes

the

vase

on

thecupboard

which

she

boughtyesterday.The

students

will

discuss

theirplan

to

hold

a

dancing

party

inthe

classroom.I

know

Simon

better

than

you.Tell

me

if

you

havetime.31My

brotherwasn’t

reading

all

the

time.The

chairmanappointed

Mr.

Brown

anassistant.The

scholar

wrote

long

thesis

and

books.Flying

planes

can

be

dangerous.32Garden

path

sentencesGARDEN

PATH(花园小径)

sentences

are

sentencesthat

are

initially

interpreted

with

a

different

structurethan

they

actually

have.It

typically

takes

quite

a

long

time

to

figure

out

whatthe

other

structure

is

if

the

first

choice

turns

out

to

beincorrect.

They

have

been

“led

up

the

gardenpath,”fooled

into

thinking

the

sentence

has

a

differentstructure

than

it

has.The

horse

raced

past

the

barn

fell.The

man

who

hunts

ducks

out

on

weekends.The

cotton

clothing

is

usually

made

of

grows

inMississippi.Fat

people

eat

accumulates.33“花园路径现象”:The

man

pushed

through

the

door

fell.大多数听者在语言处理过程的瞬间会倾向于将Theman

pushed

through

the

door理解为NP+V+PP的一

个句子结构。只有当听到动词fell

时，才折回头对语言输入重新进行处理。这种现象被很形象地称之为“花园路径现象”，就像在花园中走错了道，折回头再寻路径。一般认为，这类歧义现象会对语言的处理过程造成较大的困难。蒋祖康，“花园路径现象”研究综述，《外语教学与研究》2000年第4期，246-252。34An

important

question

in

sentence

processing

is

howpeople

decide

which

structure

an

ambiguoussentencehas.People

either

consider

all

possibilities

and

decidewhich

is

the

best,

or

else

they

use some

strategy

todecide

which

structure

to

consider

first.Several

suggestions

have

been

made

about

howpeople

decide

which

analysis

to

tryfirst.One

guess

is

that

there

is

a

strong

tendency

to

buildas

little

structure

as

possible.

The,

aninfinitenumber

of

structures

could

potentially

follow.35MINIMAL

ATTACHMENT

THEORY(最少接触理论):

It

would

be

inefficient

forpeople

to

assume

all

these

infinitestructuresuntil

they

get

some

positive

evidence

for

oneofthem.They

are

most

likely

to

choose

thesimplest.The

idea

is

that

people

initially

construct

thesimplest

syntactic

structure

when

interpretingthe

structure

of

sentences.Minimal

attachment:the

“structurallysimpler”--structural

simplicityguides

allinitial

analyses

in

sentence

comprehension.36Comprehension

of

textSentences

come

intexts

anddiscourses,

and

the

entire

text

ordiscourse

is

relevant

to

themessages

conveyed.Text

isthe

net

of

propositions

thatmake

upthe

semanticinterpretations

of

individualsentences.Readers

abstract

the

mainthreadsof

a

discourse

and

infer

missingconnections,

constrainedbylimitations

of

short-term

memoryand

guided

by

how

argumentsoverlap

across

propositions

and

bylinguistic

cues

signaled

by

the

text.37Discourse

interpretation38Resonance

model:

information

inlong-term

memory

isautomatically

activated

by

the

presence

of

material

thatapparently

bears

a

rough

semantic

relation

to

it.Schemata

and

drawinginferencesSchema:

a

pre-existing

knowledge

structure

in

memorytypically

involving

the

normal

expected

patterns

of

things.[RESTAURANT]

Schema:Entering,

ordering,

eating

and

exiting.Entering

Scene:The

customer

enters

a

restaurant,looks

for

atable,decides

where

to

sit,walks

to

thetable…39John

went

into

arestaurant.

He

asked

thewaitress

for

coq

au

vin.He

ate

it,

paid

the

bill

andleft.

(perfectlyunderstandable)John

went

into

arestaurant.

He

saw

awaitress.

He

got

up

andwent

home.

(does

notseem

to

makesense)40Apartment

for

rent.$500.I

stopped

to

get

somegroceries

but

there

weren'tany

baskets

left

so

by

thetime

I

arrived

at

thecheck-out

counter

I

must

havelooked

like

a

jugglerhaving

a

bad

day.412.3

Language

production42The

ability

to

produce

words

is

a

core

ingredientof

the

ability

to

produce

larger

utterances.Single

word

access

has

been

and

still

is

acentralresearch

topic.Access

to

wordsConceptualization:

what

to

expressWord

selection:

a

competitive

processMorpho-phonological

encoding:

targetwordsGeneration

of

sentencesConceptual

preparation:

deciding

what

to

say

–a

global

plan

isneededWord

retrieval

and

application

ofsyntacticknowledgeProcesses

of

sentence

generationFunctional

planning:

assigning

grammaticalfunctionsPositional

encoding:

getting

into

positions

foreach

unit43Written

language

productionSimilar

to

spoken

language.Orthographic

form

instead

ofphonological

form.However,

phonology

plays

animportant

role

in

thisprocess.Writers

have

more

timeavailable

forconceptualpreparation

and

planning.443.

Cognitive

LinguisticsCognition

is

the

way

wethink.Cognitive

linguistics

:A

newly

established

approach

to

the

study

oflanguageIt

is

the

scientific

study

of

the

relation

between

theway

we

communicate

and

the

way

wethink.It

is

an

approach

to

language

that

is

based

on

ourexperience

of

the

world

and

the

way

weperceiveand

conceptualizeit.453.1

Construal

识解（方法）Construal:

the

ability

to

conceive

andportray

the

same

situation

in

different

ways461）

Attention

/

salience

注意∕突显We

activate

the

most

relevantconcepts

more

than

concepts

thatare

irrelevant

to

what

we

arethinking

about.We

drove

along

the

road.She

ran

across

theroad.The

workers

dug

through

the

road.47a.

He

cleaned

the

window.b.

He

opened

thewindow.a.

I’ve

broken

the

window.b.

A

stone

has

broken

the

window.482）

Judgment

/

Comparison

判断∕比较Figure

/Ground

图形∕背景49We

cannot

attend

to

all

facets

of

a

scene

atthe

sametime.We

cannot

pay

attention

to

everything.Instead,

we

focus

on

events

ofparticularsalience.Figure-ground

organizationThe

ground

seems

to

be

placed

behind

the

figureextending

in

the

background.The

figure

is

thus

more

prominent,

or

even

moreinteresting,

than

the

ground.Figure-ground50Figure-ground

also

seems

toapply

to

our

perception

ofmoving

objects.In

order

to

distinguish

betweenstationary

and

dynamic

figure-ground

relations,

some

cognitivelinguists

(eg

Ronald

Langacker)use

the

termtrajector（射体）for

a

moving

figure

andlandmark（界标）for

theground

of

a

movingfigure.51There’s

acat[figure]

on

the

mat[ground]There

are

still

some

peanuts[figure]

inthebag[ground]Batman[figure]

was

standing

on

theroof[ground]The

computer[figure]

under

thetable[ground]

is

mineThe

spacecraft[figure]

was

hoveringoverMetropolis[ground]52Tarzan[trajector]

jumped

into

theriver[landmark]Spiderman[trajector]

climbed

up

thewall[landmark]The

bird[trajector]

winged

its

way

outthewindow[landmark]We[trajector]

went

across

thefield[landmark]I[trajector]’m

going

toLondon[landmark]533）Perspective∕Situatedness

视角∕情景Perspective

：the

way

in

which

we

view

ascene

in

terms

of

our

situatednessIt

generally

depends

on

two

things:where

we

are

situated

in

relation

to

thescene

we're

viewinghow

the

scene

is

arranged

in

relation

to

oursituatedness.54The

tree

is

behind

the

man.The

man

is

in

front

of

the

tree.55The

tree

is

in

front

of

the

man.The

man

is

behind

thetree.563.2

Categorization

（范畴化）57The

process

of

classifying

our

experiencesintodifferent

categories

based

on

commonalitiesanddifferencesA

major

ingredient

in

the

creation

of

humanknowledgeAllows

us

to

relate

present

experiences

to

past

onesThree

levels:basic

levelsuperordinate

levelsubordinate

levelBBasasicic

lelevvelel SupSupereroorrddiinatnatee

lelevvelelAnAniimamallHHoorrssee

DogDog

CatCat

ChChiihuahuahuahua

GerGermanman

dadacchshundhshundshsheephphererddSuboSuborrddiinatnatee

lelevvelelVVerertticicaall

oorrganganizizatatiionon583.3

Image

Schema（意象图式）Johnson,

Mark.

1987.The

body

in

themind:

The

bodily

basis

of

meaning,imagination,

and

reason.Chicago:University

of

Chicago

Press.59An

image-schema

is

a“skeletal”

mentalrepresentation

of

a

recurrent

pattern

ofembodied

(especially

spatial

or

kinesthetic)experience.They

are

highly

schematic

representations

ofperceptually

grounded

experience.They

emerge

from

our

embodied

interactionswith

theworld.60Center-periphery

schema（中央—边缘图式）Involvesa

physical

or

metaphorical

coreand

edge,

anddegrees

of

distance

from

the

core.Examples

(English):The

structure

of

anappleAn

individual’s

perceptual

sphereAn

individual’s

social

sphere,

withfamily

and

friends

at

the

core

andothers

having

degreesofperipherality61Containment

schema（容器图式）Involves

a

physicalormetaphoricalboundaryenclosed

area

or

volume,

orexcluded

area

or

volume.62Bodily

experience:

human

bodiesascontainers.Structural

elements:

interior,

boundary,exteriorThe

ship

is

coming

intoview.She’s

deep

in

thought.We

stood

insilence.63Cycle

schema

（循环图式）64Involves

repetitious

events

and

event

series.Its

structure

includes

the

following:A

starting

pointA

progression

through

successive

events

withoutbacktrackingA

return

to

the

initialstateThe

schema

often

has

superimposed

on

it

astructure

that

builds

toward

a

climax

andthen

goes

through

a

release

ordecline.Examples

(English)DaysWeeksYearsSleeping

and

wakingBreathingCirculationEmotional

buildup

andrelease65Force

schema

（力量图式）Involves

physical

or

metaphorical

causalinteraction.

It

includes

the

following

elements:A

source

and

target

of

theforceA

direction

and

intensity

of

the

forceA

path

of

motion

of

the

source

and/ortargetA

sequence

ofcausation66Examples

(English):Physical:

Wind,

GravityStructural

elements:

force,

path,

entity,etc.Interaction,

directionality,

causalityCompulsionBlockageCounterforceDiversionRemoval

of

restraint67Link

schema（连接图式）Consists

of

two

or

more

entities,connectedphysically

or

metaphorically,

and

the

bondbetween

them.Entity

A Entity

B68Examples

(English):A

child

holding

her

mother’shandSomeone

plugging

a

lamp

intothe

wallA

causal

“connection”Kinship

“ties”69Part-whole

schema（部分—整体图式）Involves

physical

or

metaphorical

wholesalong

with

their

parts

and

a

configuration

ofthe

parts.Examples

(English):Physical:

The

body

and

itspartsMetaphorical:

The

family;The

caste

structure

ofIndia70Path

schema（路径图式）Involves

physical

or

metaphoricalmovement

from

place

to

place,

andconsists

of

a

starting

point,

a

goal,

and

aseries

of

intermediate

points.71Examples

(English):Physical:

Paths;

TrajectoriesMetaphorical:

The

purpose-as-physical-goalmetaphor,

as

expressed

in

thefollowingsentences:Tom

has

gone

a

long

waytoward

changing

hispersonality.You

have

reached

the

midpoint

of

your

flighttraining.She's

just

starting

out

to

make

her

fortune.Jane

was

sidetracked

in

her

search

for

self-understanding.72Scale schema（刻度图式）Involves

an

increase

or

decrease

ofphysicalor

metaphorical

amount,

andconsists

of

any

of

the

following:A

closed-

oropen-endedprogression

of

amountA

position

in

theprogressionofamountOne

or

more

norms

of

amount73Examples:Physical

amountsProperties

in

the

number

systemEconomic

entities

such

as

supply

anddemandVerticality

schema（垂直图式）Involves

“up”

and

“down”

relations.Examples:Standing

uprightClimbing

stairsViewing

a

flagpoleWatching

water

rise

in

a

tub753.4MetaphorGeorge

Lakoff

and

MarkJohnson

(1980).

MetaphorsWe

Live

By.University

ofChicago

Press.76Conceptual

Metaphor

Theory（概念隐喻理论）77Metaphors

are

actually

cognitive

tools

thathelp

us

structure

our

thoughts

andexperiences

in

the

world

around

us.Metaphor

is

a

conceptual

mapping,

not

alinguistic

one,

from

one

domain

toanother,not

from

a

word

to

another.Target

domain

-

what

is

actuallybeingtalked

about.Source

domain

-

the

domain

used

as

abasisfor

understanding

targetX

is

Y.Target

domain

(X) Source

domain

(Y)RATIONALARGUMENT78WARThere

arethree

categories

ofconceptualmetaphors:Ontological

metaphors本体性隐喻Structural

metaphors结构性隐喻Orientational

metaphors

方位性隐喻79(1)

Ontological

metaphorsHuman

experiences

with

physical

objectsprovide

the

basis

for

ways

of

viewing

events,activities,

emotions,

ideas,

etc.,

as

entitiesandsubstances.Categorize

events,

actions

and

states

assubstances.80Example:

INFLATION

IS

AN

ENEMYa.

Inflation

is

lowering

our

standard

ofliving.b.

If

there

is

much

more

inflation,

we’ll

neversurvive.c.

We

need

to

combat

inflation.d.

Inflation

is

backing

us

into

acorner.81Example:

THE

MIND

IS

A

MACHINEa.

My

mind

just

isn’toperating.b.

I’m

a

little

rusty

today.c.

We’re

still

trying

to

grind

out

the

solution

tothis

equation.82(2)

Structural

metaphorsProvides highly

structured,

clearlydelineated

source

domain

to

structure

targetdomain.The

nature

of

the

mapping:

Themappinginvolves

two

types

ofcorrespondencebetween

target

and

source

domain,

which

areboth

grounded

in

our

experiences

in

theworld.It

implies

how

one

concept

is

metaphoricallystructured

in

terms

ofanother.83Example:ARGUMENT

IS

WARYour

claims

are

indefensible.He

attacked

every

weak

point

in

myargument.His

criticisms

were

right

on

target.I

demolished

his

argument.I’ve

neverwon

an

argument

with

him.You

disagree?

OK,

shoot!If

you

use

thatstrategy,

he’ll

wipe

you

out.He

shot

downall

of

my

arguments.84(3)

Orientational

metaphorsGives

a

concept

a

spatial

o