概述石油和天然气地质学

ChengduUniversityofTechnologyCollegeofEnergyResourcesPetroleumGeologyTheimportanceofpetroleumgeologyTheneedofeconomicdevelopmentThesafetyofstatestrategySeaterritoryofourcountryOil&GasPricefrom2023-2023Brentoil100.48$/perbarrel(2023.3.4)IMPORTEXPORTPetroleumReservesofTheWorld东海盆地石油资源量54亿吨，探明天然气储量842亿方（2023年），天然气资源量24600亿方。各国具有200海里经济专属区。我国与日本旳岛屿间没有400海里，国际法要求有两种海域划法。½法大陆架延伸法日本不接受南海模式，即“搁置争议，共同开发”MainContentsofPetroleumGeology

Themaintasksofpetroleumgeologyaretodealwiththeprocessofpetroleumgeneration,migrationandaccumulationanddistributionaswell.

OccurrencesofPetroleum

Petroleumoccurswidelyintheearthasgas,liquid,semisolid,orsolid,orinmorethanoneofthesestatesatasingleplace.Chemicallyanypetroleumisanextremelycomplexmixtureofhydrocarbon(hydrogenandcarbon)compounds,withminoramountsofnitrogen,oxygen,andsulfurasimpurities.Liquidpetroleum,whichiscalledcrudeoiltodistinguishitfromrefinedoil,isthemostimportantcommercially.Itconsistschieflyoftheliquidhydrocarbons,withvaryingamountsofdissolvedgases,bitumens,andimpurities.Petroleumgas,commonlycallednaturalgastodistinguishitfrommanufacturedgas,consistsoflighterparaffin(石蜡)hydrocarbon,ofwhichthemostabundantismethanegas(CH4).Thesemisolidandsolidformsofpetroleumconsistoftheheavyhydrocarbonsandbitumens.TheRelationshipsbetweenPetroleumGeologyandSciencesinGeneralGeologyitselfisanintegrativescience.Foundedupontheobservationofallinanimate（无生命旳）featuresoftheEarth-rocks,fossils,rivers,volcanoes–itseekstheirexplanationwiththeassistanceoftheoriesandexperimentsofothersciences.Petroleumgeologycontainsthosedisciplines,whichareofgreatestsignificanceforthefindingandrecoveryofoilandgas.PhysicalGeology,Mineralogy,Petrology,Sedimentology,Stratigraphy,StructureGeology,Tectonics,Geophysics,Geochemistry,Mapping,EconomicsInessence（本质）,wemaythinkofgeologyasaspectrumextendingbetweenoneend-numberimmediatelyrelatedtotheexactsciencesofchemistry,physics,andmathematics,andanotherend-numberrelatedtothelifescience(zoologyandbotany).Thefistend-numberismineralogy,thesecondpaleontology;eachisascienceinitsownright.pyriteberylEverythinginbetweenthesetwosciencesiseitherphysicalorhistoricalgeology,oracombinationofthetwo.Closetomineralogyareigneousandmetamorphicpetrology,whichinvolveprofessionalknowledgeofchemistryandofthermodynamics.Closetopaleontologyisstratigraphy,involvinganunderstandingofbiology,meteorology,andoceanography.Closetobothpetrologyandstratigraphyarestructuralgeologyandsedimentarygeology,requiringknowledgeofmechanics,hydraulics,anddescriptivegeometry.TsunamicausedbyanunderwaterearthquakeorvolcaniceruptionAnyorallofthesesubdisciplinesmayadoptnotonlythematerialofthephysicistsandthechemistsbuttheirtechniquesinaddition,givingusthedistinctiveinterdisciplinarysciencesofgeophysicsandgeochemistry.Amodernuniversitycurriculumingeologyhastoembraceallthesetopics.Asgeologyismoredependentupontheothersciencesinthecurriculumthantheyareuponit,thegeologist’sprogramofstudymustalsoincludethosesciencesthemselves.Itisafortunatedepartmentthatcanfindroomandtimeinsuchaprogramforanythingspeciallycalledpetroleumgeology.Thenewgraduatemayenterthepetroleumindustryarmedwiththecorecoursesingeologyandtheothersciencesalone.

Geology,alreadyanintegrativescienceforthestudent,becomesstillmoreintegrativeforthepractitionerintheindustry.Becauseoilandgasarefluids,aknowledgeoffluiddynamicsmustbeacquired.Becausegeologyinindustryisfundamentallypractical,aknowledgeofsomebranchesofengineeringwillquicklybecomenecessary.Andbecauseeverythingthegeologistdoeswilleventuallycometotestinthemarket-placeoftherealworld,anunderstandingofeconomicsisabighelp.

Sincepracticallyallpetroleumoccursinsedimentaryrocks,sedimentologyformsanimportantpartofthebasisforpetroleumgeology.早期高水位晚期高水位期高低时间潮上滩后泻湖浅水滩丘--斜交前积中-高水位面，上为晚期，下为早期加积到S形前积老岩层斜坡盆地沉积体系潮间到潮上带泥灰岩含生物碎屑灰岩鲕粒滩坝相斜坡相盆地细粒灰岩早期高水位沉积体系晚期高水位沉积体系伴生II型旳沉积几何形态立体图解（转引自徐怀大，1993）高水位早期沉积体现为加积到“S”型进积模式，高水位晚期沉积体现为丘形到斜交型进积。海平面茶源坪太平镇建南向盆地方向滩体边沿斜坡边沿Structuralgeologyisalsoimportantforunderstandingthemodeandtimingofoilandgastrapsandthegeneraldevelopmentofsedimentarybasin.Oilandgasarederivedfromorganicmatterburiedinasedimentarybasin.Organicgeochemistry,whichincludesthestudyoforganicmatterinsedimentsanditstransformationintohydrocarbon,hasbecomeanimportantpartofpetroleumgeology.Todayweexploreforstructureswhichareseldomvisibleonthesurface.Todefinesubsurfacestructures,weuse(1)geophysicalmeasurementsatthesurface,and(2)correlationbymeansoflogsandfossilsfromwell.Geophysicalmeasurementsmayincludegravimetryandmagnetometry,butseismicmeasurementsaredefinitelythemostimportant.

Becauseoftherapidimprovementinthequalityofseismicdataprocessingtechniques,geologicalinterpretationofseismicdatahasanentirelynewandexpandingfield.Seismicsectionsandothergeophysicaldataareoftentheonlyinformationwehave,particularlyforexplorationbelowtheoceanfloor,wheredrillingisverycostly.

飞四飞三飞二飞一嘉陵江组飞仙关组长兴组三迭系二迭系飞三反射第一相位飞四顶反射JN-00-18储层部位Geophysicalwell-loggingmethodshavedevelopedequallyrapidly.Logsprovideacontinuityofinformationthroughlongseriesofbedswhichonecanseldomobtainfromexposuresorcoresamples.Thisinformationmakesitpossibletointerpretnotonlythelithologicalcompositionofrocksandthevariationofporosityandpermeability,butalsothedepositionalenvironment.

裂缝+溶孔发育段裂缝发育段溶孔发育段GR

CALRSRDACPEItwouldbetruetosaythatindirectmethodsofmappingrocktypesemployinggeophysicalaidsarebecomingincreasinglyimportantinpetroleumgeology,butitisstillnecessarytotakesamplesandexaminetherocksthemselves.Apetroleumgeologistshouldalsohaveexperienceofmappinginthefieldandofsedimentologyandpetrographyinordertobeabletointerpretindirectdatalikeseismicrecordsorwelllogs.高值异常区高值异常区高值异常区。工业性气井：建3、10、36、51井Formanyexplorationmanagersandchiefgeologists,thatisalltheywantintheirrecruits.Awelltrainedgeologist,withoutprefix,willbeabletoapplyhisknowledgeandabilitiestothepetroleumindustry’sconcernsoncetheyareaugmentedbyafewtechniquesthatonlyexperienceintheindustrycanteach.Inthemodernindustry,nooneindividualwillhavetheopportunitytoacquireexperienceortouseskillinalloftheseaspectsofthesubject.Themodernpetroleumgeologistisaslikelytobecomeaspecialistasanyotherkindofscientistis.Thebestpetroleumgeologists,nonetheless,areamongthemostversatileofscientists.BasicVocabularyPetroleum(rockoil):

isanaturallyoccurringcomplexofhydrocarbonswidelydistributedinthesedimentaryrocksofEarth’scrust(F.K.North,1990).Anaturallyoccurringcomplexliquidhydrocarbon,whichafterdistillationandremovalofimpuritiesyieldsarangeofcombustiblefuels,petrochemicalsandlubricants(GlossaryofGeology,1997).Ageneraltermforallnaturallyoccurringhydrocarbons,whethergaseous,liquidorsolid(Leverson,1967).Synonymous:CrudeoilReservoir(petroleum):

Anyporousandpermeablerockthatyieldsoilorgas.Sandstone,limestoneanddolomitearethemostreservoirrocks,butaccumulationinfracturedigneousandmetamorphicrocksisnotunknown(GlossaryofGeology,1997).Pool(petroleum):

Asubsurfaceaccumulationofoiland/orgasinporousandpermeablerock(GlossaryofGeology,1997).Petroleumbecomescommerciallyexploitablewhenitisnaturallygatheredintoapool,whichisasingle,discreteaccumulationofoilorgasinasinglereservoirwithasingletrap.Severalpoolsmaylieinaverticalsuccessionwithinasinglearea,ortheymayliesidebysideoroverlaplaterallysoastoconstituteanareallycontinuousaccumulationcalledafiledoroilfield.Trap(petroleum):

Anybarriertotheupwardmovementofoilorgas,allowingeitherorbothtoaccumulate.Atrapincludesareservoirrockandanoverlyingorupdipimpermeableroofrock;thecontactbetweentheseisconcaveasviewedfrombelow(GlossaryofGeology,1997).

SedimentaryBasin:

Athreedimensionalgeologicalentitycontaininganumberofoilandgasfields(F.K.North,1990).AlowareaintheEarth’scrust,oftectonicorigin,inwhichsedimentshaveaccumulated(GlossaryofGeology,1997).

Province(petroleum):

Ageographicalregioncontainingpetroleumfieldshavingsomegeologicalcharacteristicsincommon(F.K.North,1990).Anylargeareaorregionconsideredasawhole,allpartsofwhicharecharacterizedbysimilarfeaturesorbyahistorydifferingsignificantlyfromthatofadjacentareas(GlossaryofGeology,1997).Aprovincemaybesynonymouswithbasin,oritmayembraceseveralbasinssharingclearsimilaritiesbutseparatedbybarren,nonbasinaltracts.District(petroleum):

isageographicconcentrationoffieldswithinabasinoraprovince(F.K.North,1990).

Prospect(petroleum):

Asmallareawithinabasin,provinceordistrictwhichmaycontainoilandgasbuthasnotyetbeenprovedtodosoissocalled(F.K.North,1990).Play(petroleum):

Theactiveexplorationorleasingof(and)petroleumornaturalgas,basedonaconceptofthepetroleumgeologyofanarea(F.K.North,1990).Alargeareawithinwhichthedrillingofprospectshasestablishedsuccessandpointedthewayforfurtherdrilling(F.K.North,1990).Well(petroleum):

Oilandgasarediscoveredandexploitedbydrillingboreholes,orbyboringdrillholes,aholewhichyieldsanyfluidisawell(F.K.North,1990).Conventional:

Oilandgasoccurringundertheseconditionsaresaidtobeconventional(F.K.North,1990).Exploratory:

Awelldrilledtoanunexploreddepthorinunproventerritory,eitherinsearchofanewpoolofoilorgasorwiththeexpectationofgreatlyextendingtheknownlimitsofafieldalreadypartlydeveloped(GlossaryofGeology,1997).WildcatWell:

Awelldrilledinsearchofanewaccumulationofoilorgasiscalledwildcatwell(F.K.North,1990).

Anexploratorywelldrilledforoilorgasonageologicfeaturenotyetproventobeproductive,orinanunproventerritory,ortoazonethathasneverproducedorisnotknowntobeproductiveinthegeneralarea(GlossaryofGeology,1997).

Derrick:

Aframeworktowerofsteel(onadrillfloor),erectedoveradeepdrillhole,usedtosupportthevarioustoolsandtackleemployedinhoistingandloweringtheequipmentusedindrillingandcompletingthewell(GlossaryofGeology,1997).Reserves:

Anestimatewithinspecifiedaccuracylimitsofthevaluableoilandgasofknownaccumulationthatmaybeproducedundercurrenteconomicconditionandwithpresenttechnology.

Exploration:

Thesearchfornewpetroleumconstitutesexploration(F.K.North,1990).

Development:

Thepreparationofaminingpropertyorareasothatanorebodycanbeanalyzedanditstonnageandqualityestimated.Developmentisanintermediatestagebetweenexplorationandminning(GlossaryofGeology,1997).

Theprocessofrecoveringthereserves,bydrillingwellswithinafieldandoperatingthemsuccessfully,iscalleddevelopment.

Therelationshipbetweenexploration,reserves,resourceanddevelopment

Thesearchfornewsourcesofpetroleumconstitutesexploration.Thesourcesdiscoveredbysuccessfulexplorationbecomereserves,whicharethoseportionsofthetotalresourcethathavebeenshowntobeaccessibleandrecoverableundercurrenteconomicandtechnologicconditions.Becausenorecoverytechniquecanextractalltheoilandgasfromafield,thereservesofthefieldactuallycontains.Theprocessofrecoveringthereserves,bydrillingwellswithinafieldandoperatingthemsuccessfully,iscalleddevelopment.Basicstatistics(基本统计学)

Geologyisnotoneoftheexactscience,andgeologists,likeothernaturalscientiststendtobewary(谨慎)ofnumbers,whichtheydonotalwaysunderstand.Thepetroleumindustriesemployalargenumberofscientists,spendenormousamountsofmoney,andsupplytheworldwithenormousvolumesofproducts.Petroleumstatisticshavebecomecommonplaceinnewspapersandotherpublicationsquiteunconnectedwiththeindustry.Oilandgasprices,OPECproductionrate,pipelinecostsandthroughputs,nationalimportfigures,andsoonhavebecomeroutinetopicsfortheinformationmedia.Allpetroleumgeologistsshouldmakethemselvesfamiliarwiththefundamentalstatisticsoftheirindustry(andtheirscience),ingeneralizedterms,becausethenumbersinvolvedaresolargeandsocriticalthatmisquotationormisunderstandingofthemhasseriousconsequences.Aswebeganthe1980’soilandgassuppliedabout50percentoftheworld’senergy;oilandgasbetweenthemsuppliedmorethantwo-thirds.Thevolumesproducedandconsumedarethereforeverylarge,buttheunitsinwhichtheyaremeasuredarerelativelysmall.Sotheworldsbillion,trillion,andevenquadrillionaremattersofroutineconversationandcommunicationintheoilandgasindustries;figuresofthisorderarebotheasilymisunderstoodandeasilymisquoted.

Quantitiesofoilhavetraditionallybeenexpressedinbarrels,becausethisunitofmeasureusedintheUSA.Onebarrelcontains42USgallons,or35Imperialgallons.Manycountries,includingtheUK,USSRandP.R.China,haveexpressedoilquantitiesintermsnotofvolumebutofweight:ineithertonsortones(metrictons,of1000kg).Sotherelationbetweenatonneandabarrelofoilisnotconstant;itdependsontherelativedensityoftheoil.Onetonneofaverageworldcrudeoilisequivalentto7.33USbarrels,butforaheavyoiltheconversionfactoris6.8orless,andforaverylightoilitis7.6ormore.OnlyafewLatinAmericancountrieshavetraditionallyexpressedoiloutputandreservesincubicmeters.

Quantitiesofnaturalgashaveofcoursealwaysbeenexpressedintermsofvolume;cubicfeetinNorthAmericanandmanyothercountries;cubicmetersinmostEuropeancounties.Nowalljurisdictionsandallorganizationsshouldusethemetricmeasure.Becauseoilandgasarecommonlyproducedinthesameregions,inmanycasesbythesameproducingorganizations,itisoftennecessarytoexpressquantitiesofoilandgasincombination.Theexpressionisthenintermsofoilequivalent,accordingtoheat-producingcapacityofthetwofuels.Onthisbasis,onebarrelofaveragelightoilisequivalentto6000or6500cubicfeetofnaturalgas(1m3oflightoil=1000-1120m3ofgas).

Thesignificanceoflognormality

Itseemstobealawofnature,thoughithasneverbeenadequatelyexplained,thatsizedistributionofnaturalphenomenadisplayacharacteristicformoflopsidedness.Thelopsideddistributionsaresaidtobelognormal,buttheydeviateinanimportantrespectfromtruelognormality.Alognormaldistributionisonewhichbecomesessentiallynormalifthelogarithmofthesizefactorisplottedagainstthenumberofitsrepresentatives.Therelationthereforebecomesessentiallylinearifplottedonprobabilitypaper,onwhichthelogarithmofsizefactorisplottedagainstthecumulativefrequencyofitsoccurrence.About95percentoftheworld’sknown,conventionaloiloccursinonly50basins.Between70and75percentoccursinonlytenofthem,andalmosthalfofthetotalisninearetheMaracaibo,Ural-Volga,andWest-Siberian,theReforma-CampecheregionofMexico,theGulfCoastandPermianbasinsoftheUSA,theSirtebasin,theNigerdelta,andthenorthernNorthSea.Ifconventionalgasisconsideredaswellasoil,andconvertedtooil-equivalentat1000m3ofgasto1m3ofoil(6000cfperbarrel),calculationsbyLyttonIvanhoeindicatethatthetoptenbasinscontain68percent,andthetop25basins84percentofthetotalknownreserves.Foryears,nineortenfieldshavecontributed25percentoftheworld’sannualproductionofoil.Whereasmorethan100fieldshadeachproducedmorethan0.1×109m3(about625×106barrels),bytheendof1984,onlyninehadproducedtentimesthisquantity.Inorderofoutput,theyareGhawarinSaudiArabia,theBolivarCoastalfieldinwesternVenezuela,GreaterBurganinKuwait,RomashkinointheUral-VolgaBasinoftheSovietUnion,SamotlorinSiberia,Kirkuk,AghaJari,Abqaiq,andSafania-KhafjiinfourseparateMiddleEastcountries.

Costsoffindingandproducingoilandgas

Untiltheendof1960s,thepetroleumindustry’sconcernaboutthecostsoffindingandproducingtheirproductswasconcentratedondrillingcosts.Thesewerequotedascostsperfeet(ormeter)ofholedrilled,andthefigureswereoftheorderUS$30-50/m.Thesecostshaveescalatedenormouslysincetheearly1970s,forthreeelementaryreasons.Unitcostsofalloperationshaveriseneverywhere;exploratorywellsarenowdrilledmuchdeeperthanformerly,andmuchdeeperfieldsareexploited;finally,drillingandproductionhavebeenextendedintodeepwatersoffshoreandintootherregionsofoperationaldifficultyinhighlatitudes.Deepdrillingcostsexceed$300/mandarecommonlymorethantwicethatamount.Thetotalcostofdrillingtheworld’swellsisnowintherealmof$20×109-50×109annually.

Drillingwells,ofcause,isnottheonlycostoffindingoilandgas.Pre-drillingexploration,includingbothgeologicandseismicsurveys,hasbeenincreasingincostatabout15percentperyearforadecadeormore.In1981,seismicsurveysonlandinthenoncommunistworldcostabout$3×109annually;marinesurveyscostanadditional$0.75×109.Totalseismiccosts,includingprocessingofdata,arebetween$4×109and$5×109annually;one-thirdofthesecostsisincurredintheUSA.Theindustry’sattentionhasconsequentlybeenshiftedfromthecostsofdrillingtothecostsoffindingoil.Solongasthesecostswereoftheorderof$1perbarrel($6/m3approximately),theywereoflittleconcern.IntheMiddleeast,thecostoffindingoilwasmeasuredincentsperbarrel.By1981,theaveragecostoffindingoilinthenoncommunistworldhadbecomealmost$55/m3,andthisfigurecanonlybecomelarger.Costsofproducingoilandgashaverisenproportionately.Theoperationofasingleproducingwell,tea