2026年光伏乘用车光伏系统技术考量研究报告-PV System Technology Considerations for PV-Powered Passenger Vehicles 2026

Task17PV&Transport

PVPS

PVSystemTechnologyConsiderationsfor

PV-PoweredPassengerVehicles

2026

ReportIEA-PVPST17-7:2026

Task17PV&Transport–PVSystemTechnologyConsiderationsforPV-PoweredPassengerVehicles

WhatisIEAPVPSTCP?

TheInternationalEnergyAgency(IEA),foundedin1974,isanautonomousbodywithintheframeworkoftheOrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD).TheTechnologyCollaborationProgramme(TCP)wascreatedwithabeliefthatthefutureofenergysecurityandsustainabilitystartswithglobalcollaboration.Theprogrammeismadeupof6.000expertsacrossgovernment,academia,andindustrydedicatedtoadvancingcommonresearchandtheapplicationofspecificenergytechnologies.

TheIEAPhotovoltaicPowerSystemsProgramme(IEAPVPS)isoneoftheTCP’swithintheIEAandwasestablishedin1993.Themissionoftheprogrammeisto“enhancetheinternationalcollaborativeeffortswhichfacilitatetheroleofphotovoltaicsolarenergyasacornerstoneinthetransitiontosustainableenergysystems.”Inordertoachievethis,theProgramme’sparticipantshaveundertakenavarietyofjointresearchprojectsinPVpowersystemsapplications.TheoverallprogrammeisheadedbyanExecutiveCommittee,comprisedofonedelegatefromeachcountryororganisationmember,whichdesignatesdistinct‘Tasks,’thatmayberesearchprojectsoractivityareas.

TheIEAPVPSparticipatingcountriesareAustralia,Austria,Belgium,Canada,China,Denmark,Finland,France,Germany,India,Israel,Italy,Japan,Korea,Lithuania,Malaysia,Morocco,theNetherlands,Norway,Portugal,SouthAfrica,Spain,Sweden,Switzerland,Thailand,Turkey,theUnitedKingdomandtheUnitedStatesofAmerica.TheEuropeanCommission,SolarPowerEuropeandtheSolarEnergyResearchInstituteofSingaporearealsomembers.

Visitusat:

WhatisIEAPVPSTask17

TheobjectiveofTask17oftheIEAPhotovoltaicPowerSystemsProgrammeistodeployPVinthetransport,whichwillcontributetoreducingCO2emissionsofthetransportandenhancingPVmarketexpansions.TheresultscontributetoclarifyingthepotentialofutilizationofPVintransportandtoproposalonhowtoproceedtowardrealisingtheconcepts.

Task17’sscopeincludesPV-poweredvehiclessuchasPLDVs(passengerlightdutyvehicles),LCVs(lightcommercialvehicles),HDVs(heavydutyvehicles)andothervehicles,aswellasPVapplicationsforelectricsystemsandinfrastructures,suchascharginginfrastructurewithPV,batteryandotherpowermanagementsystems.

DISCLAIMER

TheIEAPVPSTCPisorganisedundertheauspicesoftheInternationalEnergyAgency(IEA)butisfunctionallyandlegallyautonomous.Views,findingsandpublicationsoftheIEAPVPSTCPdonotnecessarilyrepresenttheviewsorpoliciesoftheIEASecretariatoritsindividualmembercountries

COPYRIGHTSTATEMENT

Thiscontentmaybefreelyused,copiedandredistributed,providedappropriatecreditisgiven(pleaserefertothe‘SuggestedCitation’).Theexceptionisthatsomelicensedimagesmaynotbecopied,asspecifiedintheindividualimagecaptions.

SUGGESTEDCITATION

Bittkau,K.,Patel,N.,Slooff-Hoek,L.H.,Apaydin,R.O.,Rosca,V.,Mujovi,F.,Faes,A.,Chambion,B.,Duigou,T.,Araki,K.(2026).

Bittkau,K(Ed.),PVSystemTechnologyConsiderationsforPV-PoweredPassengerVehicles(ReportNo.T17-07:2026).IEAPVPSTask17.

/key-topics/t17-technology-considerations-vipv-2026/

COVERPICTURE

ExamplesofVIPV-seeFigure2.1-2fordetails.

Task17PV&Transport–PVSystemTechnologyConsiderationsforPV-PoweredPassengerVehicles

5

INTERNATIONALENERGYAGENCY

PHOTOVOLTAICPOWERSYSTEMSPROGRAMME

PVSystemTechnologyConsiderationsfor

PV.PoweredPassengerVehicles

IEAPVPS

Task17

PVandTransport

ReportIEA-PVPST17-7:2026

March2026

ISBN:978-1-923734-03-6

DOI:10.69766/IYIK7476

6

AUTHORS

MainAuthors

KarstenBittkau,ForschungszentrumJülich,GermanyLennekeH.Slooff-Hoek,TNO,theNetherlands

AntoninFaes,CSEM,Switzerland

BertrandChambion,CEA,France

KenjiAraki,UniversityofMiyazaki,Japan

ContributingAuthor

NeelPatel,ForschungszentrumJülich,Germany

RamazanOguzhanApaydin,TNO,theNetherlandsVictorRosca,TNO,theNetherlands

FahradinMujovi,CSEM,Switzerland

TatianaDuigou,CEA,France

Editor

KarstenBittkau,ForschungszentrumJülich,Germany

7

TABLEOFCONTENTS

Listofabbreviations 8

Executivesummary 10

1Introduction 12

1.1PV-poweredpassengervehicles 12

1.2OverviewofPVsystemtechnologyconsiderations 12

2Curvature 13

2.1AbriefoverviewofcurvedPVmanufacturingtechniques 13

2.21Dand2Dcurvaturesanditsimplications 15

2.3ImpactofcurvatureonPVperformanceandyield 18

2.4Cellinterconnectionsolutionsforcurvedmodules 20

2.5Hotspots 21

3Aesthetics 24

3.1Aestheticsintermsofvehicleapplication 24

3.2OverviewofexistingcolouringtechniquesfordifferentPVtechnologies

24

4Weight 32

4.1InfluenceofPVweightinPV-poweredpassengervehicles 32

4.2Casestudy 34

4.3Results 36

5ComplianceandSafety 39

5.1OverviewoftestingstandardsforPVandautomotivesectors 39

5.2TestingexamplesofdifferentPVtechnologies 41

5.3SpecialtestingrequirementsforcurvedPV 42

5.4Toxicmaterials 44

5.5Vibrationrobustness 45

6Conclusion 46

References 47

8

LISTOFABBREVIATIONS

1DOne-dimensional

2DTwo-dimensional

ARCAnti-reflectioncoating

BCBack-contactedsolarcells

BIPVBuildingintegratedphotovoltaics

BoMBillofmaterials

CBFConductivebackfoil

CVDChemicalvapordeposition

DCDirectcurrent

DCPDigitalceramicprinting

ECEEconomiccommissionforEurope

EVElectricvehicle

EVAEthylene-vinylacetate

FTBFront-to-backcontactedsolarcells

GPSGlobalpositioningsystem

HDVHeavydutyvehicles

IBCInterdigitatedbackcontact

IEAInternationalenergyagency

IECInternationalelectrotechnicalcommission

ISOInternationalorganizationforstandardization

LCVLightcommercialvehicles

MBBMulti-busbar

MPPMaximumpowerpoint

MQTModulequalitytest

MSTModulesafetytest

OECDOrganizationforeconomiccooperationanddevelopmentPERCPassivatedemitterandrearcell

PETPolyethyleneterephthalate

PLDVPassengerlightdutyvehicles

POAPlane-of-array

PT600IECprojectteamforVIPVsystems

9

PV

Photovoltaics

PVB

Polyvinylbutyral

RAL

Reichs-AusschussfürLieferbedingungenundGütesicherung(Imperialcommitteefordeliveryandqualityassurance)

RTE

Relativethermalendurance

RTI

Relativethermalindex

TC

Thermalcycling

TCP

Technologycollaborationprogramme

TI

Thermalindex

SEPA

Smartelectricpoweralliance

SHJ

Siliconheterojunctiontechnology

STC

Standardtestconditions

UV

Ultraviolet

V2X

Vehicle-to-X

VAPV

Vehicleappliedphotovoltaics

VIPV

Vehicleintegratedphotovoltaics

10

EXECUTIVESUMMARY

ThisreportprovidesacomprehensiveoverviewofVehicleIntegratedPhotovoltaic(VIPV)systems,focusingontheirtechnologicalconsiderations,challenges,andpotentialapplicationsintheautomotiveindustry.ThereportcoversvariousaspectsofVIPV,includingcurvature,aesthetics,weightimpact,compliance,andsafety.

•Curvature:Theintegrationofphotovoltaic(PV)modulesontocurvedvehiclesurfacespresentsuniquechallenges.ResearchershaveexploredvariousmanufacturingtechniquesforbothVehicleAppliedPV(VAPV)andVehicleIntegratedPV(VIPV).ThereportdiscussesthemechanicalbehaviorofPVcellsunderdoublecurvature,providinginsightsintothelimitsofcellbendingtoavoidcracksandelectricallosses.TheimpactofcurvatureonPVperformanceandyieldisalsoexamined,highlightingtheneedforoptimizedelectricaltopologiesincurvedmodules.

•Aesthetics:ThereportemphasizestheimportanceofaestheticsinVIPVapplications,particularlycolorandsurfacefinish.VariouscoloringtechniquesfordifferentPVtechnologiesarepresented,includingcoloringofrear-sidematerials,solarcells,frontencapsulants,andfrontmaterials.ThereportalsodiscussesthechallengesofcolorreproducibilityandthedemandforspecificRALcolorsinVIPVapplications.

•WeightImpact:TheadditionalweightofonboardPVsystemsisacriticalfactorinevaluatingtheenergybenefitsofPV-poweredvehicles.ThereportpresentsamethodologytoassesstheimpactofPVweightontheenergybalanceofelectricvehicles,introducingtheconceptofayieldfactor.CasestudiesinvolvingdifferentPVtechnologiesandvehiclemodelsdemonstratethattheimpactofPVweightissignificantbutcanbeoffsetbyenergyyieldduringparkingphases.

•ComplianceandSafety:ThereportoutlinesthecurrentlackofdedicatedstandardsforVIPVandaddressesasafetyqualificationprogrambasedonexistingPVandautomotivestandards.ThisprogramcombineselementsfromIEC61730-2:2016andISO16750,alongwithadditionaltestsspecifictoVIPVapplications.ThereportalsodiscussesrecentupdatestorelevantstandardsandtheirimplicationsforVIPVtesting.

•TestingConsiderations:SpecialtestingrequirementsforcurvedPVmodulesarehighlighted,emphasizingtheneedforreproducibletestingmethods.Thereportpresentsfindingsfrominternationalround-robinprojectsinvolvingtestinglaboratoriesandresearchinstitutes,revealingchallengesinmeasuringcurvedmodulesandtheimportanceofconsideringindoortestresultsversusoutdoorperformanceforVIPVproducts.

•ToxicMaterialsandVibrationRobustness:ThereportbrieflymentionsthepotentialuseoftoxicmaterialsinVIPVsystemsandtheimportanceofconsideringpoliticalregulationsandrecyclability.Vibrationrobustnessisidentifiedasasignificantriskforlong-termreliability,withthereportdiscussingthelimitationsofcurrentdampingmaterialsinthefrequencyrangesrelevanttovehicleapplications.

11

KeyTakeaways:

•VIPVtechnologypresentsuniquechallengesintermsofcurvature,aesthetics,andweightimpactthatrequirecarefulconsiderationduringdesignandimplementation.

•StandardizationeffortsareongoingtodevelopcomprehensivetestingandsafetyqualificationprogramsspecifictoVIPVapplications.

•TheenergybalanceofPV-poweredvehiclesdependsonvariousfactors,includingPVtechnology,vehicletype,andusagepatterns.

•Aestheticconsiderations,particularlycolorandsurfacefinish,playacrucialroleintheacceptanceandintegrationofVIPVsystems.

•SpecialtestingmethodsandconsiderationsarenecessaryforcurvedPVmodulestoensureaccurateperformanceevaluationandlong-termreliability.

FutureOutlook:

AsVIPVtechnologycontinuestoevolve,furtherresearchanddevelopmentareneededtoaddressthechallengesidentifiedinthisreport.Standardizationefforts,improvedtestingmethodologies,andadvancementsinPVtechnologiestailoredforvehicleintegrationwillbecrucialinrealizingthefullpotentialofVIPVsystemsintheautomotiveindustry.Inparticular,roadauthoritieshavetheirownqualitytestsforsafetyrequirements.VIPVperformanceandenergyyieldevaluationrequiremuchmoreinputdata,includingthecommutepattern,withouthavinganystandardthatallowsacomparisonbetweendifferentVIPVsystems.

12

1INTRODUCTION

1.1PV-poweredpassengervehicles

Tocounteractman-madeclimatechange,strongefforthastobemadeinallapplicationsectors.Thisalsorequirestheelectrificationofthetransportsectorleadingtosignificantlyhigherelectricitydemand.Integratingphotovoltaic(PV)systemsintoexistingstructures(buildings,roads,vehicles,agriculturalareas,etc.)helpstoreducethetotalareasneededforgeneratingtheelectricitytomeettheincreasingdemand.Inthetransportsector,thePVsystemmightbeaddedontopofthevehicle(VAPV–vehicleappliedphotovoltaics)orfullyincludedintothevehiclebody(VIPV–vehicleintegratedphotovoltaics).TheelectricitygeneratedbythePVsystemmightbeusedtodirectlypowerthevehicleduringitsdriving,chargethebatteryduringparkingstate,orfedtothegridorotherdevices(V2X–Vehicle-to-X).

AmongotherPVapplications,PV-poweredpassengervehiclesrequirespecialtechnologyconsiderationsduetotheiruniquenature.Thoseconsiderationsareintroducedinthenextsection.

1.2OverviewofPVsystemtechnologyconsiderations

Thetechnologyconsiderations,asstudiedinthisreport,arecategorizedbydifferentaspects,asillustratedin

Figure1.2-1.

Thecurvatureofthevehicle’sbodyisconsideredinChapter

2

intermsofmechanicalstabilityofthePVmodulesandtheimpactofthecurvedshapeontheirperformance.VisualappearanceofVIPVmodulesplaysakeyroleinthesocialacceptance.DifferentcolouringtechnologiesforPVarediscussedinChapter

3

withrespecttotheirapplicability,homogeneity,andimpactonthePVperformance.WiththeVIPVsystem,thevehiclehastomoveadditionalweightduetothemodulesandtheelectronics,whichincreasestheenergyconsumption.TheoverallenergybalancefordifferentVIPVsolutionsisinvestigatedinChapter

4

.Finally,complianceandsafetyissuesofVIPVsystemsissummarizedinChapter

5.

Figure1.2-1Conceptfigureshowingthetechnologyconsiderationsinvestigatedinthisdocument.

13

2CURVATURE

2.1AbriefoverviewofcurvedPVmanufacturingtechniques

Photovoltaic(PV)modulemanufacturingiscrucialtosafeguardthelonglifetimeofsolarcellsandthereforesolarpowerproduction.Becausethesepanelsareexposedtodifferentenvironmentalconditions,thechoiceofmaterials(billofmaterials-BoM)andmethodologyformanufacturinggainampleimportance[

1

][

2

].Inaddition,whenappliedonvehicles,non-standardshapes(curvatureoftheparts),additionalmechanicalforces(i.e.vibrations)impactingonthecarbody,andthereforeonthesolarpanels,bringmorecomplexityinthematerialchoice,design(bothgeometryandelectrical),assembly,processingandinstallationofPVmodules[

1

][

2

][

3

][

4

][

5

][

6

].Consequently,theuseandinstallationofsolarcellsorPVmodulesonthesecomplexcarpartscanoftenbeamajorchallenge.Inthisregard,researchershaveexploredvariousroutestowardsrealizinginstallationofPVcomponentsonvehicles.Inthisreport,wesummarisethistopicundertwomainsections.

2.1.1Integrationontothevehicle-VehicleappliedPV(VAPV)

VehicleappliedPVelementsarecomponentsthatareattachedtothecarbodyinvariousmanners.Thesepanelsareusuallyproducedusinglightweightflexiblematerials;however,conventionalPVpanelapplicationsarealsopresent.TherearetwosimplesolutionsinordertoapplyPVonthevehiclebody.Theseare(a)usingscrews,bracketsorrailstofixthePVcomponentand(b)adhesivemethod(gluing,stickingusingforexampledouble-sidedtapesontothecarbodyormagneticattachment)[

7

][

8

].Theformer,whichismoreflexibleandadjustable,isgenerallyusedforconventionalPVpanelswhereasitincreasestheweightofthecar.Thelatterisusedforflexiblepanelsthatcanfollowtheshapeofthevehiclepart.Thishoweverresultsinincreasedheightandwindresistanceaswellasmodulerelatedproblems(i.e.cellcracks)dependingonthegeometry.

Figure2.1-1

showssomeexamplesofVAPVondifferentvehicles.

a)

b)

Figure2.1-1VAPVexamplesonvariousvehicles(a)PVpanelinstalledonracks[

7

],(b)PVpanelattachmentonroofwithmagneticrearpanel[

8

]

2.1.2Integrationdirectlyintothecarbody–VehicleintegratedPV(VIPV)

ThetermVIPVreferstotheinstallationofaPVmoduledirectlyintotherooforhoodandsometimesonthetrunkordoorsofavehicle.Inthisapproach,thecorrespondingpartofthevehiclebodyisusedasafixedpartofthePVmodule.Forexample,inthecaseofglassroofapplications,theglassroofofthevehiclecanbeusedastheprotectivefrontglassthatisusedinconventionalmodules.Similarly,ametalbodypartofavehiclecanbeusedasarigid

14

substrateprovidingthemechanicaldurabilityandstabilitytothemodule.SuchPVintegratedvehiclecomponentscanberealizedindifferentways.

StandardlaminationproceduresthatareusedforconventionalmodulescanbeadoptedformanufacturingcurvedPVcomponentswhereas,alternatively,autoclaveorovenlaminationapproachesarealsoconsidered[

1

][

9

].Intheseapproaches,pre-shapedrigidand/orflexiblecounterpartcombinations(rigid-rigidorrigid-flexible)areusedtosupportandprotectsolarcells.Thecellscanbeplacedonthesupporting/protectingbodypartassinglecell,cut-cells,stringsofcells,shingledcells,thinfilmcellsorcombinationsdependingonthegeometry,designandexpectedpoweroutput.In

Figure2.1-2,

someexamplesofsuchapplicationsareshown.

a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

f)

Figure2.1-2ExamplesofVIPVelements(a)PVcarrooffroma2-solarontheFiskerKarma[

82

],(b)carpartswithintegratedsolarcellsfromSonoMotors[

83

],(c)integratedPVpanelsonCourbC-Zenbody[

84

],(d)solarpanelsystemforcarroofs[

85

],(e)ApteraSolarElectricVehicle[

86

],(f)Hyundaisolarcarroof[

87

]

Inaddition,VIPVapplicationscanbebasedonanintegratedapproachasdescribedin[

10

]

[

11

][

12

].Inthisapproach,smallerglass-freeandrobustsemi-fabricates(intermediateproducts),similartothinfilmPVsheetsorbuildingintegratedphotovoltaics(BIPVs)foilproducts[

13

][

14

][

15

]areproduced.Thesesemi-fabricatesaredesignedtohavedefinedelectricalcharacteristicsenablingaconfigurablesystemoutputviaseriesorparallelconnectionswiththeneighboringsemi-fabricate,andtobereadilyintegratedintothefinalPVproductinasecondaryprocessstep.

Figure2.1-3

showsarepresentationofthesemi-fabricateprocessingintoafinalproduct[

12

].

b

c

a

Figure2.1-3Semi-fabricateprocessing(a)andintegration(b)andfinalproduct(c-carhood)

15

Flatmoduleswithflexiblecomponentscanalsobeappliedoncurvedsurfaces.ThereareseveralcompaniesthatareproducingflexiblePVpanelsthatcanbeappliedonsurfaceswith1D(cylindricalshape).

Inthemajorityofcases,flexiblepanelsdesignedforuseon1Dcurvesurfacesdemonstratealackofconformitywhenemployedon2Dcurvesurfaces.ToapplyflatPVon2Dcurvedsurface,dedicatedcutlineswithinaflat&thinPVmodulecouldbeused[

16

][

17

].ItresultsinaconformablePVmodule,thatcanbeinstalledondifferenttypesofroofs.Themoduleisbuiltflatonapolymerbase(frontsidePETandbacksidenitrilerubberwithmagneticferrites).ThemechanicaldesignofthemoduleallowsforpartialcuttingofthemodulebetweenthePVcellstringsandthusgreatlyincreasestheconformabilityofthemoduleondifferentcurvedsurfaces.ThiskindofPVmoduleiswelladaptedforelectricvehiclesolarisationkitsorlightweightvehicles.In

Figure2.1-4,

adesignofaconformablePVmodulewithpartialcutisshown

.Figure

2.1-5,

showtheresultingpanelafterinstallationontoRenaultZoeroof.

Figure2.1.4ConformablePVmoduledesignfromlightflatmoduleto3Dconformability.

Figure2.1.5GlobalviewofaRenaultZoevehiclewith145Wpmoduleonrooftop.

2.21Dand2Dcurvaturesanditsimplications

InordertoconsidercurvedPVpanelsonvehicles,thefirststepistofocusonthemechanicalbehaviourofphotovoltaiccellswhenbentunderdoublecurvature(2D).ThiswillenabletodefinecurvatureradiifortheintegrationofPVcellsintodoublecurvedPVmodules.Thefinalityistodefinelimits,toavoidcellscracks,andtheelectricallossestheyimply.Duigouetalproposedacombinedmethodology,includingnumericalandexperimentalapproaches[

18

].TheexperimentalpartofthestudyfocussedonmechanicalfailureoffullandhalfM2cells

16

undersphericalcurvature.Asetofexperimentaltestswasperformedtoobtaina"pass-or-fail"criteriumontheallowedshapes(i.e.minimumsphericalradius).Thelimitingshapewillenabletogetavalueofthemaximumtensilestressallowedforacellwithoutinterconnectionribbons.Theimplementationofanumericalmodelallowsfortheanalysisofprinciplestressesinthecellundersphericalcurvatureanddoublecurvature.Theinfluenceofseveralparametersmustbeconsidered,suchascell'sarea,thickness,andshapefactoronthelimitallowedshape.Theterm"shapefactor"willrefertotheratioofwidthoverlengthofthecell.Forexample,athirdofcellhasashapefactorof1/3andahalf-cell,ashapefactorof1/2.

Thenumericalmodelaimstocurvesiliconcellsinsphericalshape.Materialdatathatareconsideredforsiliconarepresentedin

Table2.2-1

.Theultimatetensilestressoftheconsideredcellscanbeestimatedtobearound120MPa[

19

].Thisvaluewillbeusedasaninputinthenumericalstudy.

Table2.2-1MaterialdataforSiliconasinputformechanicalmodelling[

19

]

Theexistenceoftensilestressesatthecentreofthecellshouldalsobeunderlined:shapinganon-developablesurfaceonasphereimpliestheapparitionofcompressivestressesattheperiphery,whilecentralareasundergotensileeffects,especiallyinthedirection±45°.Bytestingseveralthicknessesandradiusofcurvatureinthenumericalmodel,areferencecurvewithtwozoneswasobtained:abreakageareaandasafezone

(Figure2.2-1)

.

Figure2.2-1Mapofthestressesforacompletecellundersphericalcurvature(R=800mm,thickness=180µm),inMPa.(a)MaximumprincipalstressesS1.(b)MinimumprincipalstressesS3.(c)Apictureofawaferundergoingbucklingatthemiddleofitsedgesunderdoublecurvatureload[

88

].Thisareanumericallycorrespondstoanareaofmaximumcompressivestress.

17

Tocomplementthenumericalstudy,asetofexperimentaltestswasledonnon-interconnectedcells,tovalidatethealloweddoublecurvedshapesestimatedwiththenumericalmodel.Foreachcasethecellispushedincontacttoacurvedmoldthankstohydrostaticpressuretoconcludeonafailureorpassedtest.Theseresultsareintegratedin

Figure2.2-2.

Figure2.2-2Relationbetweenthesphericalradiusandthemaximumallowedarea:"allowed"and"forbidden"zonesforasquarecellwiththickness180µm.Thedotlinecorrespondstothelimitshapes,forwhichS1max=120MPa.Resultsoftheexperimentaltestspointsarerepresented,aswellasanexampleofabrokencell.Thebreakoccursnearthecentreofthecell.

Themethodologywasdeployedonlargercells(uptoM12),halfandthirdformats.Itgivesnewmechanicallimitsforcellbending

(Figure2.2-3

).Comparedtofullcells,halfcutcellshavethesamelimits,butthirdcutcellsgiveasignificantadvantageforbending.

Figure2.2-3Breaklimitdependingonthegeometryandareaofthecell.

18

ThisstudyexploresthetheoreticallimitsofPVcellmechanicalintegrityundersphericalbending,providingafoundationforthedesignofoptimalcellpackagingconfigurationswithinthecontextofVIPVapplications.However,itisimperativetonotethattheseconsiderationsmustbeadaptedinaccordancewiththespecificationsofthepackaging,theinterconnectsemployed,andthemanufacturingprocess.

2.3ImpactofcurvatureonPVperformanceandyield

CurvedPVmodulesarealreadyusedonthemarketinVIPVimplementations(ToyotaPriusasexample[

20

])butcharacterizationprocedureandtoolsarestilllacking.Providingsuchtoolsmightinfactprovetobechallengingascurvedmodulesbringmanylayersofcomplexity.Tosolvethisissue,theworkgroupPT600iscurrentlyundertakingthetasktoproperlysetanormforVIPVmodules.Anappropriatenormwouldallowtoestablishacommongroundbetweendifferentcurvedmodulesperformancewiseandpricewise.

Proportionallytothecurvaturelevelofthemodule,theirradianceshouldbeinherentlyinhomogeneousoverthemodule’scells.Byhavingadifferentlevelofirradiance,eachcell’scurrent,andthuspower,outputwillvary.Inacomplexmoduledesign,usingbypassdiodesandcomplextopologies,itbecomesclearthatthecurvaturewillimpactthemoduleperformancesandyield.

Fromtheleasttothemostcurvedsettingdepictedin

Figure2.3-1,

theISCmeasuredare5.9A,5.9A,5.6Aand5.17A.Lookingatthe

Table2.3-1,

theirradiancedifferencecorrespondstoaverysimilardifferenceinISC.

R=1.8[m]

R=∞

a)b)

R=0.9[m]R=0.6[m]

c)d)

Figure2.3-1:SimulatedirradiancewiththePASAN8mlightsourcefordifferentcurvaturelevels.Eachpointonthegraphrepresentsasolarcell,totalling60cells.

19

Table2.3-1:Comparisonofthenormalized(comparedtotheflatreference)ISCandirradianceforeachcurvaturelevel.Thetwovaluesareindeedcorrelatedandillustratehowthecurrentislimitedbythelowestirradiatedcellsinthemodule.TheslightlyhighervaluesofcurrentcomparedtotheirradiancecomefromthefactthattheothercellswhicharemoreirradiatedstillinfluencetheoverallI-Vcurve.Whenthecurvatureincreases,thedifferenceinirradiancefollowsthesametrend.

Radius[m]

ISC/ISC,ref

Irrad/Irradref

∞

100%

100%

1.8

98.8%

98.7%

0.9

94.5%

93.4%

0.