语言学导论-第4章Syntax

SentenceStructure:SyntaxInflP（=S）VPNPNPDetNVDetN

AboywillfindtheevidenceInfl1Syntax句法学Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.Syntaxtheories:TransformationalsyntaxTransformationalGenerativeGrammar(TG)转换生成语法2TransformationalGenerativeGrammar(TG)

Noam.Chomsky(1928-)themostinfluentiallinguistin20thcentury,someimportantworks:(1957)SyntacticStructure;(1965)AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax;(1981)LecturesonGovernmentandBinding;(1986)Barriers(1993)AMinimalistProgramforLinguisticTheory;(1995)TheMinimalistProgram;(1998)TheMinimalistInquiry……3

Criteriaongoodgrammar

Observationaladequacy观察充分性Descriptiveadequacy描述充分性Explanatoryadequacy解释充分性Theultimategoalforanytheoryistoexplain.TGdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinthatitnotonlyaimsatlanguagedescription,butalsoitsexplanation.Chomskyproposedthatthegrammarsofallhumanlanguagesshareacommonframework(UniversalGrammar).4Categories范畴Agroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguage,e.g.,ASentence:Theboykickedtheball.ANounPhrase:strongman,tallestboyAVerb:kick,run,goSyntacticcategories句法范畴cangenerallysubstituteforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticality.

e.g.,The____smiles.manboygirl5Word-levelcategoriesTraditionalgrammar:8partsofspeechNounVerbAdjectiveAdverbPronounPrepositionConjunctionInterjection“Oh,Ouch,eh,Hey,…”6MajorlexicalcategoriesNoun(N)Verb(V)Adjective(A)Preposition(P)MinorlexicalcategoriesDeterminer(Det)限定词:the,a,this,thoseDegree(Deg)程度词:quite,very,more,soQualifier(Qual)修饰词:often,always,seldom,almostAuxiliary(Aux)助词:must,should,can,mightConjunction(Con):and,but,orWord-levelcategories7Word-levelcategories8Meaning：

N.:todenoteentitiesandobjectse.g.,John,Mary,pen,book

V.:todesignateaction,sensationandstatese.g.,run,hate,exist

Adj.:tomodifypropertyofnounse.g.,prettylady

Adv.:todenotepropertyofverbse.g.,Jennyleftquietly.Notalwaysreliable:Hestandsstill.

love–hate

beawareof

–

knowabout9Inflection--affixWordsofdifferentcategoriestakedifferentinflections.E.g.,Pluralaffix“s”

–N.Pasttense“ed”,progressiveaffix“ing”

–

V.Comparativeaffix“er”,superlative“est”

–

A.

Exception:milk,stand-stood,let-let,morecompetitive

“s”

–thirdpersonsingular

“ed”

–Adj.(deviationalaffix)

“er”

–teacher(deviationalaffix)10Distribution--collocationWhattypeofelementscanco-occurwithacertainword.

E.g.,N.–Det.:thecar,agirlV.–

Aux.:wouldgo,shouldstayA.–Deg.:

verycool,toobrightEx711ExerciseCategoriestheboyintheclassroomalwaysplayfootballveryclosetothelibraryquitenearthestation12PhrasecategoriesThesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategory,e.g.,NP:girl

theprettygirlVP:dream

oftendreamAP:pessimistic

verypessimisticPP:about

mainlyaboutNPVPAPPP--phraselevelNVAP--wordlevel13Thestructure:

a

picture

onthewall

+head+标志语中心词补语Head:thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedSpecifier:thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsComplement:thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsPhrasecategoriesspecifiercomplement14Phrasestructurerules短语结构规则Thegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphrase:NP

(Det)+N+(PP)…e.g.,thosepeople,thefishontheplateVP

(Qual)+V+(NP)…e.g.,alwaysplaygames,finishassignmentsAP

(Deg)+A+(PP)…e.g.,veryhandsome,familiarwith,veryclosetoPP

(Deg)+P+(NP)…e.g.,ontheshelf,quitenearthestationEx815SpecifierXComplementHeadXPTheXPruleNote:XstandsforN,V,AorP.TheXPrule:XP(specifier)X(complement)16ExerciseDrawthestructureofthefollowingphrasestheboyintheclassroomalwaysplayfootballveryclosetothelibraryquitenearthestation17Coordinationrule

并列规则Coordinatestructures:thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunction.

Fourproperties:nolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesbeforetheconjunction;acategoryatanylevelcanbecoordinated;thecategoriesmustbeofthesametype;thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.

Coordinationrule:XX*ConXEx1018Phraseelements短语成分SpecifierHeadComplementModifierSpecifierHeadComplement

XPX:N,V,A(Adv),P19Specifiers标志语Functions:Semantically,specifiersmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead;Syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary.

Specifiers:determinersasinNP:thetree,thisbookqualifiersasinVP:alwaysfail,neversurrenderdegreewordsasinAP:quitegood,verysensitive

PP:almostin,quiteabove20Complements补语ComplementscanbephrasesProvidinginformationaboutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningoftheheadAttachedtotherightoftheheadE.g.astoryaboutasentimentalgirlnervousabouttheexaminthelakeopenthedoorsendmeanemailputitonthewall21Therecanbenocomplement,onecomplement,ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase,E.g.,aVP:

appear,break...,put…

Asentence-likeconstructionmayalsofunctionasacomplement,E.g.,Ibelieved

thatshewasinnocent.

Idoubt

ifshewillcome.Complementizers补语化成分:that/if:Complementclause:theclausesintroducedbycomplementizers.

Complementphrase(CP)Complements补语Ex11(1)22Modifiers修饰语Specifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads:

manner

andtime

ModifierExamplesN:AP

averycarefulboy

V:AdvPreadcarefully;carefullyreadV:PPopenwithcareTheExpandedXPrule:

XP(Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod)

Ex9(1)23Exercisetheprettyladyintheroomreaditcarefullyopenthebookwithcare24Sentences(theSrule)

S

NPVP

SNPVPNPDetNVDetNAboyfoundtheevidence25

S

NPinflVPInflP(=S)NPVPInflSentences(theSrule)Head(tense&agreement)26Inflrealizedbyatense

labelInflP（=S）NPVPNPDetNPstVDetNAboy

foundtheevidenceInfl27InflrealizedbyanauxiliaryInflP（=S）VPNPNPDetNVDetN

AboywillfindtheevidenceInflEx9(2)Ex11(2)28Transformations转换

Auxiliarymovement(inversion)DoinsertionDeepstructure&surfacestructureWh-movementMoveαandconstraintsontransformations29Auxiliarymovement(inversion)InversionMoveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP.CCPSDetNInflVthetrainwillarriveNPInversion(revised)MoveInfltoC.E.g.:Willthetrainarrive?VP30Auxiliarymovement(inversion)CPSCNPInflDetNVWillthetrainarriveeInflVPEx13(a)31DoinsertionInsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.

CPCSNPInflVP1)BirdsflyCPCPCCSSInflNPInflVPNPInflVP2)Birdsdofly3)DobirdseflyE.g.:

Birdsfly.Dobirdsfly?32E.g.:Willthetrainarrive?TheXPrule

thetrainwillarriveTransformations

WillthetrainarriveDeepstructure&surfacestructure

DeepstructureSurfacestructure33Theorg