荷兰人工智能与算法报告

Report

AI&AlgorithmsNetherlands

Summer2025(Fifthedition,July2025)

Periodicinsightintotrends,risks,andcontroloftheuseofAIandalgorithmsintheNetherlands

beschermingineenAutoriteitPersoonsgegevens

digitalewereldDepartmentfortheCoordinationofAlgorithmicoversight(DCA)

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Tableofcontents

3.AIand

emotionrecognition

2.

Policyandregulations

Keymessages

1.

Overarchingdevelopments

Tochapter→

Tochapter→

Tochapter→

Tochapter→

4.

Emotionrecognitioninpractice

Explanation

ofthisreport

Tochapter→

Tochapter→

Annex:

GettingStartedwith

algorithmregistration

Tochapter→

Keymessages

1.ThedevelopmentanduseofAIsystemstorecogniseemotionsisgrowing,whiletheireffectivenessisquestionableand

theiruseposesrisks.

MoreandmoreAIsystemsclaimtobeabletorecogniseemotionsbasedonbiometrics.Examplesinclude

recognisingemotionstogaininsightintoconsumer

purchasingbehaviourortogaininsightintopatients’

emotionswiththeaimofimprovingcare.Thesystemsarebuiltondisputedassumptionsaboutemotionsandtheirmeasurability.Itisthereforedoubtfulwhethertheycanactuallymeasureemotions.Ifthesystemsaredeployedafterall,thismayviolatefundamentalrightsandpublicvalues.Considertherestrictionoffreedomandhuman

autonomy,discriminationandprivacyviolations.ReadmoreaboutAIandemotionrecognitioninChapter3.

2.TheAPhasstudiedapplicationsof

emotionrecognitionincustomer

services,wearablesandlanguagemodels;insomecases,thewiderangeof

applicationsleadstorisksthatrequireattentionfromproviders,deployers,regulatorsandpolicymakers.

Thein-depthstudyshows,forexample,thatitisnot

alwaysclearhowemotionsandstressarerecognisedorhoweffectivethisis.Despitethegrowthofthese

applications,peoplearenotalwaysawarethatemotionrecognitionisbeingusedorwhichdataisusedtodoso.Providersanddeployersmustbeawareoftherisks

associatedwitheachspecificapplication.Various

applicationswillsoonbesubjecttospecificregulations.Whetheritisdesirabletodeploythesesystemsisa

differentissue.AI-basedemotionrecognitionhasbeenprohibitedintheareasofworkplaceandeducation

institutionssinceFebruary2025.Whetherandtowhatextentthedeploymentofthesesystemsisactually

desirable,willultimatelybeapoliticalassessment.

ReadmoreaboutemotionrecognitioninChapter4.

3.TheAPcallsonorganisationstoadoptacriticalstancetothedeploymentof

emotionrecognitionapplications.

Organisationsmustbeawareofthelimitationsofemotionrecognitionandmakeaconsciousdecisionastowhetheritsdeploymentisappropriateandproportionate.Ifthesesystemsaredeployed,organisationsmustbetransparentabouttheirusetowardsindividualswhoseemotionsare

beinganalysed.Furthermore,obtainingconsentfrom

theindividualsbeinganalysedisanimportantfirststeptowardsresponsibleuseofthesystemsbyorganisations.Chapter4discussesthreepracticalexamplesofemotionrecognition.However,workingtowardsresponsible,

consciousandtransparentuseisalsoimportantforotherapplications.

4.IntheNetherlands,dedicatedeffortsarebeingmadetodevelopreliableAI,butasasocietyweneedtostepupoureffortstobeabletoseizeopportunitiesofferedbyAIinaresponsiblemanner.

ReliabledeploymentofalgorithmsandAIispossibleandrequiresattentiontoprotection,securityandtransparency.Thismeansthatasasocietywemustlearnlessonsfrom

incidents.GiventhespeedandscaleatwhichDutch

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organisationsareadoptingAIandalgorithms,itseems

likelythatmanyincidentsgounnoticed,unreportedandthatlessonslearntarenotshared.Incidentsareinevitableatthisstageofthesocietaltransition.Gainingexperiencewithhandlingincidentsandlearningabouttheirnature,causeanddamageisessentialfororganisationstogrowintermsoftheresponsibleuseofAIandalgorithms.

5.Withthehelpofanincreasinglyrichsetoftools,everyorganisationcannoweffectivelyworktowardsAImaturity.

Fromalgorithmregistration,biastestingandsettingupqualitymanagementsystemstoconductingfundamentalrightsassessmentsandmakingdeploymenttransparent–togetthere,organisationsneedtoinvestinpeople

andresourcesanddefinemeasurableandspecific

organisationalobjectives.Forexample,anambitionto

auditthemostcriticalalgorithmicprocessesandAI

systemsannuallyonkeycriteriasuchasorganisational

control,robustness,biasandfairness,cybersecurityandrandomness.Matureorganisationsaretransparentabouttheirdeployment,haverobustsystemsandprocesses

forcontrol,andtakeinternalandexternalcontrol,andsupervisionseriously.

6.Discriminationandthedesignof

humaninterventionisamajorchallenge.IntheNetherlands,weareveryaware

ofthefactthatbothindividualsandalgorithmscandiscriminate.

Thisclearlyshowstheimportanceofreducingboth

humanandalgorithmicbiasinprocesses.Theinteractionbetweenhumansandalgorithmsisimportantinthis

respectandmustbeproperlydesignedtoprevent

discriminationandbiaswhereverpossible.TheDutch

Parliamentrecentlyadoptedamotionaimedatusing

“blind”assessmentofcitizensasastartingpoint.For

example,inthecaseoffrauddetection.Fromthe

perspectiveoftheAPasasupervisoryauthority,itis

necessarytolookatthedecision-makingchainasawhole,incorporaterandomsampling,andtoensurethatthe

risk-basedselectioncanbeexplainedandchallenged.

7.AIplaysanimportantroleingeopoliticaldevelopments.

CommitmenttosuccessfuldeploymentofAIisconsideredessentialforeconomicdevelopment.PromotinginnovationandtheAIecosystemhasrapidlymovedupthepolitical

agenda.Wherethereareconcernsaboutrulescurtailinginnovation,deregulationisquicklyconsidered.However,atthesametimenewregulationsarebeingdevelopedorimplementedtoprotectagainstexcesses.Theperspectiveontherightbalancebetweeninnovationandprotectionalsodifferspercountryandregion.Inaddition,AIis

increasinglybecomingpartofnationalstrategies,rangingfromhealthcaretodefence.Dependenceonmajorplayersandthegrowingdesireforstrategicautonomyareplaying

anincreasinglyimportantroleinthisrespect.ThistopicisalsoreceivingattentionattheEuropeanlevel,forexamplethroughtheEuropeanCommission’sAIstrategyand

relatedfundingambitions.

8.Itisimportanttomaintainor

acceleratethepaceofpolicydevelopmentandimplementationintheNetherlands.

AnationaloverarchingAIstrategyremainsnecessaryin

ordertoseizetheopportunitiesofferedbyAIandmanagetheassociatedrisks.Itisimportanttomakealgorithm

registrationmandatoryforpublicandsemi-public

organisationswhendeployingimpactfulalgorithmsorAI.TheAPfurtherrecommendsmakingperiodicauditsfor

thesealgorithmsandAIalegalrequirement.Toguide

responsibleinnovationintherightdirection,allrelevantsupervisoryauthoritiesandinspectoratesmusthave

adequateresourcesforAIsupervisionintheNetherlands.Investmentsinpartnershipsareindispensablefor

effectivelyorganisingjointsupervisionandkeeping

pacewithrapidtechnologicaldevelopments.TheAP

recommends,inthecaseofpublicinvestmentsin

innovation,toreserveafixedpercentageofinvestmentsforinternalmonitoring,externalauditingandsupervision.Theproperfunctioningoftheselayersisessentialfor

acceleratinginnovationanddeployment.

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9.TheAIActisbecomingincreasingly

concrete,withstandardsbeingan

importantinstrumentforgainingcontroloverAIandfuturecompliancewiththeAIAct.

OverayearaftertheAIActenteredintoforce,we

continuetoseefurtherclarificationandrefinement.TheEuropeanCommission’sguidelinesonprohibited

AIsystemsandthedefinitionofAIsystemsprovideinitialinsightandanexplanation,butalsoraisemanyfollow-upquestions.Refinementwillcontinue,withthedevelopmentofstandardsprovidingclarityonhoworganisationscan

complywiththerequirementsoftheAIAct.Notonly

generic,butalsosector-specificimplementationsoftheAIActshouldleadtospecificguidanceandsupport.

10.Includingalgorithmsinaregisterisagoodstartingpointformanagingtherisksassociatedwiththeuseof

algorithms.Analgorithmregistercontainsinformationaboutthedeploymentofalgorithms.

Broadlyspeaking,algorithmregistrationhastwo

overarchingobjectives.Objective1:Topromoteinternal

controlofalgorithms(governance).Objective2:Topromoteexternalcontrolofalgorithms(transparency).TheDutchgovernmentisdevelopingalegalframeworkforthe

AlgorithmRegister.Thislegalframeworkaimstoprovideclarityaboutthemandatoryregistrationofalgorithms.Evenwithoutthisobligation,theAlgorithmRegisterisalreadyavaluableandpracticaltoolforproviding

transparencyandpromotingoversightofgovernment

algorithms.Manyorganisationsarenotyetusingthe

AlgorithmRegister;theAPencouragesgovernment

organisationstomakemaximumuseoftheregister.Intheannex“Gettingstartedwithalgorithmregistration”,theAPprovideseightpracticalstepsforgettingstartedwith

algorithmregistration.

OverallcontrolviewofAIandalgorithmsintheNetherlands–Summer2025

Controlpillar

Status

Winter2024-2025

Status

Summer2025

Explanation

GriponthedevelopmentandvolatilityofAIandalgorithmictechnology

Requiresincreasedattention

Requiresincreasedattention

Unchangedcomparedtothecontroloverviewofsixmonthsago.ThedevelopmentofgenerativeandotherformsofAIcontinuesunabated.Therisksandimpactoffrontiermodelsarenotyetfullyunderstood.

UnderstandingandcurrentcontrollabilityofnewAIandalgorithmicrisks

Requiresincreasedattention

Requiresincreasedattention

Unchangedcomparedtothecontroloverviewofsixmonthsago.Newdevelopmentsarecausingnewincidentsthatarenotalwaysforeseeable.Controltoolsarestillunderdevelopment.

DevelopmentofnationalAIecosystem

Requiresattention

Requiresattention

AstrongnationalAIecosystemisbecomingincreasinglyimportant.Thisisevidentfromthegrowingdesirefordigitalsovereignty.

AttentiontoinvestmentsinAIisalsoincreasing,providinganopportunitytocatchup.

Trustin,focusonandknowledgeofAIandalgorithmsinDutchsociety

Oncourse

Oncourse

Unchangedcomparedtothecontroloverviewofsixmonthsago.

Havingreachedalowpointin2024,trustinAIandalgorithmsamongtheDutchpopulationcontinuestogrow.TheNetherlandsis

consciouslyworkingonAIliteracy.

FrameworksandcompetencesforoversightofAI-systems

Oncourse

Requiresattention

RequiresincreasedattentionduetotheambitioustimelinesfortheAIAct,thecallforsimplificationandtheDutchpoliticalsituation.

HarmonisedandpracticalstandardsforAIsystems

Insufficientprogress

Requiresincreasedattention

Improvementcomparedtothecontrolviewofsixmonthsago.

HarmonisedstandardstopreparefortheAIActwillnotbefinalisedintheshortterm.However,progressinthedevelopmentofstandardsispickingupspeed.

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Controlpillar

Status

Winter2024-2025

Status

Summer2025

Explanation

RegistrationandtransparencyofalgorithmsandAIsystems

Requiresincreasedattention

Insufficientprogress

Controlpictureislesspositivecomparedtosixmonthsago.Workonalgorithmregistrationhasbeenongoingforseveralyears,butthereisstillalongwaytogo.Mostgovernmentorganisationshavenotyet

registeredanything.

InsightintoincidentsinvolvingtheuseofAIandalgorithmsandembeddingoflessonslearnt

Insufficientprogress

Insufficientprogress

Unchangedcomparedtothecontroloverviewofsixmonthsago.ThereisalackofreportsandnotificationsaboutincidentsinvolvingAIandalgorithmstosupervisoryauthorities.

Institutionalisationofgovernance,risk

managementandauditingofAIandalgorithms

Requiresincreasedattention

Requiresincreasedattention

Unchangedcomparedtothecontroloverviewofsixmonthsago.

Periodicauditsareonlycarriedouttoalimitedextentandtheresultsarenotyetfullyvisible.

Explanation:AsthecoordinatingsupervisoryauthorityforAIandalgorithms,theAP(AutoriteitPersoonsgegevens)proactivelyidentifiesandanalysescross-sectoralandoverarchingrisksandeffectsoftheuseofalgorithmsandAI.T.Theso-calledcontrolpillarsprovideinsightintotheresponsiblemanagementoftheserisksandeffects.Theoverallcontrolassessmentshowsthe

currentcontrolofAIandalgorithmsintheNetherlands.Thiscontrolassessmentshouldbeseenagainstthebackdropofawidersocietaltransition,drivenbyAIasasystemtechnology,whichplacesincreasinglyhigherdemandsonthelevelofcontroleachyear.Toindicatethedegreeofprogress(alsoinrelationtothepreviouscontrolassessment),theAPusesacolourcodeforeachpillar:greenmeans“oncourse”,yellowmeans“requiresattention”,orangemeans“requiresincreasedattention”andredmeans“insufficientprogress”.

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1.Overarchingdevelopments

QUICKLYTOTHISSUBJECT

1.1Algorithmsasasolutiontoscarcity→

1.2Strategicautonomyanddigitalsovereignty→

1.3AI-trust,AI-useandinsightintoAI-incidents→

1.4DevelopmentofgenerativeAIcontinuesunabated→

1.5AIandenergyconsumption→

1.6MappingalgorithmsandAIsystems→

1.7Discriminationrisksinalgorithmsandthedesignofhumanassessment→

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1.1Algorithmsasasolutiontoscarcity

IntheNetherlands,AIandalgorithmsarebeing

deployedwithhighexpectationsofproviding(partial)solutionstoscarcitywithinsociety.AIandalgorithmsareexpectedtooffersmartsolutionsto,forinstance,

housingshortagesandacongestedenergygrid.AIandalgorithmsareexpectedtoproducenewsuggestionsoraccuratepredictionsfororganisationstorespondto

scarcity.

Forexample,variousalgorithmsarebeingdeployedinthehealthcaresectorwiththeaimofmitigating

workloadororganisingcaretasksmoreeffectively.

Thegovernmentisalsofullycommittedtotheadoption

ofAIinthehealthcaredomain.

1

Intheyearsahead,the

governmentplanstoinvest€400millionintechnologicalinnovations,includingAI,toincreasetheefficiencyofthehealthcaresectorandreducetheworkload.

2

Forexample,severalhospitalsarecollaboratinginapilotprogramme

forAIapplicationsaimedat,amongothers,detecting

fracturesandidentifyingincidentalpulmonaryembolisms.

3

AndgenerativeAIisbeingused,forexample,toassistin

answeringquestionsofpatients.

4

TheAPrecognisesthatAIcanbeofgreatsignificance

inthehealthcaresector,bringingbenefitsbothto

healthcareprovidersandpatients.Atthesametime,

thereistheriskthat,forexample,healthcareinstitutionswillbecomemoredependentoncloud-basedsolutions

andincreasingdataprocessingofsensitivedata.

Additionally,whenitcomestousinggenerativeAImanyapplicationshaveonlybeenonthemarketforashorttimeandtheimpactonpatientcareisstill(partly)unknown.

ItiswithgoodreasonthattheHealthandYouthCare

Inspectoratecallsonhealthcareproviderstohandleresponsiblythepurchase,introductionanduseofgenerativeAIinhealthcare.

5

Thequalityofmedicalcaremayalsoincrease,for

exampleduetoalgorithmsbeingabletodetectlung

cancerearlier…Positivedevelopmentslikethisregularlymaketheheadlines.Forexample,analgorithmthatisabletoearlierpredictthepossibilityoflungcancerbasedon

patternsinpatientrecords.

6

Thealgorithmanalyses

patientrecordsforrelevantpatternsandweighscertainrisksoflungcancer.Earlydetectionoflungcancerwiththenewalgorithmcanleadtobettertreatmentofthediseaseinsomecases.

…butthedeploymentofalgorithmsandAIin

healthcaremayalsohaveindirecteffects.The

possibilitiesofusingAIforearlydetectionofdiseasesalsoimpactsonotherpartsofthehealthcarechain.Inarecentopinion,theCouncilforHealthandSociety(Raadvoor

VolksgezondheidenSamenleving,RVS)writesthatthe

so-calleddiagnosticexpansion(rapidincreaseinpeoplewithadiseasediagnosis)isputtingmorepressureona

healthcaresystemthatisalreadyoverburdened.

7

Whereasearlydiagnosiscanbehelpfulforpeoplewithsymptoms,earlydiagnosisinpeoplewithoutsymptomsisincreasinglystretchingthecriteriafordisease.Therefore,theRVScallsforapublicdebateontheusefulnessandnecessityof

earlydiagnosesasthepossibilitiesfordoingsoincreasethankstotechnologiessuchasAI.

Thehousingshortageisalsobeingaddressedby

supportingpeopleseekinghousingwiththehelpofAIandalgorithms.Forexample,AIagentsaredeployedtohelppeopleseekinghousingfindanewplacetolivemore

effectively,toassistwithmediation,topersonalisesearchresults,andtoshowonlyhomestheypotentiallyqualifyfor.

8

Housingassociationsarealsoexploringthe

possibilitiesofAI.

9

Theenergysectorisincreasinglyusingalgorithmsto

preventoverloadandthusacceleratetheenergy

transition.AccordingtotheInternationalEnergyAgency,fullyembracingAIcouldsave€95billionannuallyand

freeup175GWofenergycapacity.

10

IntheNetherlands,

energycompaniesandgridoperatorsarefullycommittedtoAItofindsuitablelocationsforsolarandwindfarms,

forexample,ortopredictenergyconsumptionfor

optimisationpurposes.Lastyear,supervisoryauthoritiestheNetherlandsAuthorityforConsumersandMarkets

(ACM)andtheDutchAuthorityfortheFinancialMarkets(AFM)establishedthatalgorithmicenergytradinghas

increasedsignificantlyandpointtorisksofvolatilityandopaquepricing

.11

ResearchersfromtheRathenauInstituterecentlywarnedthatintegratingAIintoelectricitysystemscouldcreatedependenciesonlargetechcompanies

outsidetheEU.

12

Thismakesgridoperatorsandutility

companiesdependent,reducesdemocraticoversight,andpotentiallycreatesmonopolisticmarketstructures.

PeoplearedirectlyaffectedbytheAI-drivenenergy

market.Developmentssuchasdynamicpricing,whereAIplaysacentralrole,encouragehouseholdstoadjust

theirenergyconsumptiontofluctuatingrates.Thismayhelptoreducepeakloads,butalsoraisesquestionsaboutaccessibility,fairnessandexplainability–inparticular

forpeoplewhohavelessflexibilityintheirscheduleordemands,orpeoplewhodonothaveaccesstosmarttechnologies.

AIoffersbenefitsandcanhelpbettermatchordirect

supplyanddemand,butitalsoraisesnewand

fundamentaldistributionissuesinwhichtrade-offs

overfundamentalrightsandpublicinterestsarebeingmadeinthebackground,withoutitbeinggivenfull

attention.Whogetsaccesstoenergyandwhen?Onwhatbasisarechoicesmade?Andwhohasasayinthis?

Algorithmicfairnessiscrucialinthisrespect.Butwhatisconsidered“fair”dependsonthestandard:isitabout

equalopportunities,equaltreatmentorequaloutcomes?Withoutclearchoices,algorithmsmayactuallyreinforceexistinginequalities

.13

1.2Strategicautonomyanddigitalsovereignty

Increasinggeopoliticaltensionsfurtherincreasethe

needforstrategicautonomy.TheintegrationofAIinto

sectorsandapplicationswithhighsocietalimpact

increasesdependencies.Strategicautonomymeansthatcountriescanactautonomously,withoutbeingdependentonothercountries.

14

ThisincludestheEuropeaneconomy,energy,butalsotechnology.

InJune2025,Metainvested$14.3billioninScale,a

globalcompanythattrainsAImodels.ThisinvestmentgivesMetaa49%stakeinthecompany.

15

Scale’sCEOhasalsojoinedMeta.Investmentsonthisscaleshowhow

importantasmallgroupoflargetechcompaniesconsiderthedevelopmentandtrainingofAImodels.

Therearepositivedevelopmentsthatincreasedigitalsovereigntyandstrategicautonomy.Yet,thereisalongwaytogo.Proprietarysystemsareincreasinglybeing

developedtobecomelessdependentonnon-EUparties.Wearealsoseeingmoreandmore“privateAIstacks”

thatcompaniesandotherorganisationscanbuildand

runtheirAIapplicationson.Butfulldigitalsovereigntyisstillalongwayoff.TheNetherlandsCourtofAudit

(AlgemeneRekenkamer)statesthatthecentral

governmentpurchasesmorethanhalfofitspublic-cloudservicesfromthreemajorUStechcompanies

.16

Furthermore,theprovinceofGroningenandsome

municipalitiesarepushingfortheestablishmentof

an“AIfactory”toreducedependenceonother

countrieswithrespecttoartificialintelligence.The

EuropeanCommissionintendstohaveatleast15ofsuch“factories”inEurope.

17

Thistypeoffactoryshouldconsistofacentreofexpertiseandasupercomputer.Itisseenasauniqueopportunityforeconomicgrowth,knowledge

developmentandinnovationintheregionandinthe

Netherlands.

18

Thefactorywillcostbetween€160millionand€240millionintotal,makingitoneofthemost

expensiveAIfactoriesinEurope.FinancialcommitmentsfromtheGroningenregion,theprovinceofNorthDrentheandthegovernmenthavebroughttherealisationofthisprojectastepcloser.

19

Workingonstrategicautonomyultimatelyalso

contributestomaintainingcontroloverthealgorithmsandAIusedintheNetherlands.Increasingly,the

performanceofsociety-criticalprocesses,forexamplegovernmentservices,dependsontheuseofalgorithmicprocesses.Strategicautonomyensuresthatthe

Netherlandshasitsowninfrastructureanddata

managementonthebasisofwhichalgorithmsandAI

systemscanoperate.Forexample,foralgorithms

deployedforgovernmentdecision-making,thisensures

thattheNetherlandscanfullyalignitssystemswithitsownfundamentalvaluesandretainitsowntechnicalandethicalcontroloverthem.

1.3AI-trust,AI-useandinsightintoAI-incidents

Dutchcitizenshaveanincreasinglypositiveattitude

abouttheirAIknowledgeandcomparativelyseemoreandmorebenefitsinAI.Globally,abouttwointhree

peoplefeeltheyhaveagoodunderstandingofAI.ThiswasthefindingofaninternationalcomparativestudycarriedoutbyIpsosin30countries.

20

IntheNetherlands,75%ofcitizensnowagreewiththisstatement–anincreaseof

5%comparedto2024.ThismeansthattheNetherlands

scoreshigherthanmostothercountries.Therefore,

confidenceinone’sknowledgeofAIissound.Dutch

peoplealsoseeproportionallymoreadvantagesthan

disadvantagesinAI.In2024,theDutchwerethemost

criticalofAIworldwide.Backthen,36%oftheDutch

populationsaidtheysawmoreadvantagesthan

disadvantagesinAI.By2025,thispercentagehasincreasedby7%to43%.ThisputstheNetherlandsonparwith

countriessuchasBelgium,theUnitedStates(US),the

UnitedKingdom(UK)andSweden.Thisdevelopment

confirmsthepictureweobservedinthepreviouseditionoftheRAN:thedownwardtrendinDutchtrustin

algorithmsandAIhasreversed.SeealsoFigure1.1.

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FIGURE1.1|DEVELOPMENTSINPERCEPTIONANDUSEOFAIINTHENETHERLANDS

…theDutcharerelativelylesscriticaltowardsAI……andtheNetherlandscontinuestobea

leaderincompaniesthatdeployAI.

In2025DutchcitizensfeelverypositiveabouttheirunderstandingofAI…

%thatagreeswiththestatement“IhaveagoodunderstandingofAI”

Indonesia

The

Netherlands

SouthKoreaGlobalaverage

Spain USSweden UKGermanyBelgium

0%20%40%