Lecture 2 Argumentation 英语专业写作 教学课件.ppt

1、Lecture 2: Argumentation,Definition Argumentation is the type of writing in which writers try to encourage readers to accept their point of view on a controversial issue. To argue means to provide reasons for or against something, especially clearly and in proper order. When you are for or against s

2、omething and intend to make your point of view understood and accepted, you write argumentative essays. A piece of argumentative written work expresses the writers own idea on a subject instead of merely assembling facts.,Exposition vs. Argumentation,The purpose of exposition is to inform; the purpo

3、se of argumentation, on the other hand, is to convince. While an expository paper makes known something and explains it to make the reader understand, an argumentative essay tries to make the reader agree with its point of view and support it, to persuade him to change his mind or behavior, and to a

4、pprove a policy or a course of action that it proposes. Speeches on polices, editorials of newspapers, articles on political or theoretical questions, and various proposals are often argumentative.,Argumentation frequently makes use of the other three types of writing description, narration, and abo

5、ve all exposition, for argumentation and exposition are very closely related argumentation is actually exposition with the additional purpose of convincing or persuading.,What type of writing should we write judging from the following titles?,Examination Harmful or Useful? A My Views on Examinations

6、 E Which Weighs More School Brand or Major? A Why I Came to College E Should Class Attendance Be Required? A Laid-off Workers Have to Face Reality E Internet a Coin of Two Sides E Internet the Indispensable of Our Life E Should Euthanasia Be Legalized? A,How to write a good argumentation,Although th

7、ey can take different shapes, argumentative essays have certain basic features in common. If you wish to write a good argumentative essay, you should try your best to meet the following requirements: (1) A debatable point In organizing an argument well, you should first give a well-defined theme, or

8、 clearly state your point of view of the issue in the opening paragraph. It is imperative that the paper should have a debatable point, that is, something which can be viewed from more than one angle and is therefore open to dispute. Generally speaking, the following are not good themes.,1) Mere sta

9、tement of facts. “Chinese doctors use acupuncture anesthesia to perform certain operations” is a fact that cannot be debated. But if it is changed into “Acupuncture anesthesia should replace conventional anesthesia in all operations”, it becomes debatable. 2) Statements of personal preference “Ba Ji

10、n is my favorite author” expresses personal preference which does not lead to dispute. But a statement like “Ba Jin is the greatest Chinese writer of the 20th century” is disputable and sufficient evidence should be provided.,3) Viewpoints that are generally accepted or can be easily verified It is

11、universally known that “noise pollution is harmful to peoples health”, but it is not generally accepted that “noise pollution is the most harmful of all environmental pollution”. The former viewpoint can be proved, but the later is arguable.,(2) Sufficient evidence In the body of the essay, you must

12、 provide sufficient evidence, including reasons, facts, statistics, opinions of reliable authorities, etc. to support or prove your point of view or proposition that is stated or hinted in the opening paragraph. Since the point of your paper is not a fact, a statement of personal taste, or a viewpoi

13、nt universally accepted, you will have to provide sufficient evidence to convince the reader. Sufficient evidence includes common knowledge; specific examples; hard, not soft, evidence, or facts, not opinions, unless the opinions are expert and authoritative; statistics; and quotations from authorit

14、ies. Valid evidence is that which is clearly and directly connected with the point to be proved.,(3) Good logic It is obvious that good logic is even more important to argumentation than to any other types of writing. All the facts and reasons that are given as evidence should be logically connected

15、 with the conclusion and with each other. Any fallacy in logic or wrong step in reasoning would leave the reader in doubt about the whole argument.,There are generally two ways of reasoning: 1) Inductive reasoning 归纳 Inductive reasoning is the more common way. When you use inductive, you start with

16、facts and proceed from facts to a general conclusion. In other words, you move from specific examples to a general statement. 2) Deductive reasoning 演绎 The process is just the opposite of inductive reasoning it moves from a general statement to a specific conclusion. It works on the model of syllogi

17、sm（三段论法）a three-part argument in which there are two statements, known as the major premise and the minor premise, and a conclusion.,Here is an example of a syllogism: All human beings make mistakes. X is a human being. Therefore, X makes mistakes. From the above example we can see that the major pr

18、emise must be an accepted generalization, and the minor, a factual example of that generalization. If A and B are true, C the conclusion is bound to be true. You must be very careful about your premises, especially your major premise. Such statements as “all students love to study” and “women are mo

19、re imaginative than men” are not generally accepted, and therefore cannot be used as major premises.,(4) Clear logic A typical argumentative essay consists of three parts: an introduction which identifies the issue to be discussed and explains the importance of such a discussion; a body which presen

20、ts the evidence; and a conclusion in which the proposition, if it is stated at the beginning, is reaffirmed. In the body, it is advisable that you devote the first one or two paragraphs to a consideration of the other side of the case before stating and amplifying your own views.,Then in each paragr

21、aph that follows, you should arrange A. from the least to the most important, B. from the most familiar to the least familiar C. from the easiest to accept or comprehend to the most difficult. (5) Good use of the other three types of writing description, narration, and especially the various methods

22、 of exposition.,(6) An honest and friendly attitude To argue is not to quarrel. The force of an argument does not come from abuse, sarcasm, exaggeration, or fierce attacks, but from solid evidence, logical reasoning, and careful analysis. A domineering or hostile tone could only raise doubts about y

23、our good faith and impair the credibility of your argument, whereas an honest and friendly attitude will help win the trust of your readers. Take care that you neither overstate or understate, and avoid overuse of such words and phrases as “perhaps”, “maybe”, “sometimes”, “most often”, “nearly alway

24、s,” “I think “, “in my opinion”, which invariably weaken the force of your argument.,Essential elements of argumentation The issue / the claim / the support / the refutation The issue - a controversy, a problem, or an idea about which people disagree and hold different points of view. Ex. Identify a

25、nd check the statements that can be developed as an argument and explain why the others cant. The United Nations is an international organization of countries created to promote world peace and cooperation. The generation gap between parents and their teenage children is widening.,Smoking should be

26、banned in workplace. The greenhouse effect has significantly affected the environment. “Home” means different things to different people. More effective measures should be adopted to crack down on（处罚、制裁） cyber crime. There should be stricter laws against fishing in city canals. Nelson Mandela is a u

27、niversally respected old man. People have different reasons for wanting to change jobs. Competent teachers shouldnt be forced to retire at age 60. A better way of assessing students progress should be adopted. Paris and London both put in bids for the 2012 Olympics.,The claim - the point of view the

28、 writer tries to prove about the issue, usually the writers view on the issue. Tips on how to make a claim: Be sure that the claim what you are trying to prove is clearly stated, preferably at the beginning of your paper. When necessary, define terms that may cause confusion before making a claim. Q

29、ualify a claim of fact, when necessary, with a word such as generally, usually, probably, or as a rule, that limits the claim, e.g. Generally, college graduates earn more than high school graduates who didnt go to college. In the case of claims of value, adhere to the values you defend. State a clai

30、m of policy with a word such as should or must.,The support - ideas and information intended to convince readers that the claim is sound or believable. The three common types of support are reasons, evidence and emotional appeal. Types of support: Reasons: general statements that back up a claim, ex

31、plaining why a viewpoint on an issue is reasonable or correct. Reasons should be logical (i.e. making sense) reasonable (i.e. fair) Evidence: what writers use to support or verify reasons. Evidence should be relevant (i.e. appropriate to the case in hand) sufficient (i.e. as much as you need to veri

32、fy a reason) Emotional appeal: which evoke the needs or values that readers care deeply about. appealing to needs appealing to values,Types of evidence exemplified:,Claim: Reading aloud to preschool and kindergarten children improves their chances of success in school. Facts (i.e. a statement that i

33、s true or can be verified), e.g. First-grade children who were read to as preschoolers learn to read earlier than children who were not read to. Statistics (i.e. facts in figures), e.g. A 1998 study demonstrated that reading aloud to children produced a 16 percent improvement in the childrens abilit

34、y to recognize words used in a story. Expert opinion, e.g. Dr. Maria Morealle, a child psychologist, urges parents to read two or three childrens stories to their children daily. Examples, e.g. Stories about unfamiliar places or activities increase a childs vocabulary. For example, reading a story a

35、bout a farm to a child who lives in a city apartment will acquaint the child with such new terms as barn, plow, and tractor. Observation from personal experience, e.g. When I read to my three-year-old son, I notice that he tries to repeat words.,The refutation - which recognizes / acknowledges and a

36、rgues against opposing viewpoints. Guiding principle: finding a weakness in the opponents argument. by casting doubt on the opponents reasons; by questioning the accuracy, relevancy, and sufficiency of the opponents evidence (facts, examples, statistics and expert testimony) Structure of the refutat

37、ion: Briefly acknowledge the opposing views. Then respond and point out why it/they is/are wrong.,Overall structure of an argumentation,Introduction: Issue ; Background information ; Definition of terms Claim: Thesis statement Body: reasons and evidence; Emotional appeals; Refutation Conclusion: Res

38、tatement of claim; Final appeal; Urge to take action,Methods of Development,An argumentative essay always makes use of the other three types of writing, especially the various method of exposition. In an essay, the writer often uses some methods to add the force of persuasion. The following are some

39、 common methods used in argumentation:,Exemplification 举例说明 Deductive Method 推理法 Inductive Method 归纳法 Cause and Effect 因果 Analogy 类推，类比 Comparison and Contrast Quotation Reduction to Absurdity,Sample Essays,Sample 1. On Student Lovers Living Together According to official statistics, the number of c

40、ollege student lovers living together off campus in Beijing has increased by four times between 1997 and 2001. This is undeniably true of many other places in China. Although many students do not strongly object to it, I dont think it is advisable for college student lovers to live together away fro

41、m campus. Some lovers say that living together can help them study better, for it can help them get rid of the interference of other students. This is actually not true. When living away from campus, the lovers will always think of each other rather than the teachers assignment, and other unavoidabl

42、e family chores such as cooking and washing will also take much time away that might have been spent on study./Besides, many courses now require group work or cooperation. If they stay away from other classmates, how can they study these courses well?,Some lovers say that living together can relieve

43、 their loneliness and pressure, but it is not really the best choice. On the one hand, the real reason for their loneliness is that they are not focusing their mind on study. Study, the most important task for university students, can prove to be fascinating if you really focus on it./ On the other

44、hand, even if their loneliness is real, there are many better ways to deal with it./ For instance, they can find friends to take part in sports or other entertaining activities. By staying away from other classmates, living together can be a source of rather than solution to loneliness. Other lovers

45、 argue that they mean to get married after graduation, and this experience can help them test each other to see if they are suitable for married life. But this mentality does not hold water. The two lovers may really love each other, but living together can actually spoil a good relationship, becaus

46、e it enters into weakness rather strength, doubt rather than conviction. / A follow-up study shows that few couples living together really end in marriage.,In a word, those student lovers cannot find enough reasons to justify their choice. What they can offer all represent self-deception or misconce

47、ption（错误想法）. Although universities are not allowed to forbid students to live off campus, they can still find more effective ways to convince this lost group of disadvantages, and improve teaching and after-class activities to attract them back to campus. Questions: 1. Whats the writers argument? 2.

48、 How does the writer put forward his claim? 3. In which part of the argument does the writer identify the opposing view? 4. How does the writer refute the opposing point of view? 5. How does the composition end?,Sample 2: Should University Students Go in for Business? There are two opposite views on

49、 university students trying their hands at business. One is that doing business helps to adapt better to the society after graduation, while the other says it might occupy too much of the students time and energy which in turn has a negative impact on their academic study. In my opinion, as long as

50、we can successfully strike a balance between doing business and studying, the advantages of the former are more obvious. First, it lets us put what we have learned to practice. In fact, doing business is not that easy as we have expected. It requires good communication skill, negotiation knacks(诀窍）,

51、 presentation capabilities, and so on. Although we can learn all these from textbooks, they are theoretical only. And the real situations are far more complicated. As long as we put theories into practice, we can grasp their essence better. That is also why at present, more universities emphasizing

52、on the chance to do business ourselves, why should we not have a try?,Second, it lets us adapt better to the society. It is known that it needs time to conduct the role-shifting from a student to a profession. The earlier we are able to adapt to the business environment of the society, the better it

53、 is for our future career development. At the same time, doing business is beneficial when we are trying to find a right position in the society for ourselves. Last but not least, it involves other aspects too. If we can make best of our leisure time to do something we are interested in, like busine

54、ss, on the basis of the guarantee that academic study in the universities will not be influenced, it surely makes our campus life more colorful and meaningful.,Undoubtedly, doing business is full of risk. To cope it well not only needs bravery and creativity but also requires knowledge and wisdom. S

55、o, through doing business, we university students are more likely to be a high-caliber（才干） intellectual and make a greater contribution to society in future. Questions: 1. Whats the writers claim? 2. How does the writer develop the claim? 3.Do you think the writers way of developing the claim effect

56、ive? Why? 4.Summarize the main reasons for the writers claim.,How to write an argumentation,What do we do in the introduction? Arouse readers interest and make them go on reading. Provide necessary background. Introduce the thesis statement, or the main point, of the essay. Imply the structure of th

57、e body paragraph.,How to do in the conclusion?,Make a summary of the main points or restatements of thesis in different words. Make your final comment on the subject, based on the information you have provided.,Common fallacies（谬论）,In writing an argumentation, the writer should use objective, logica

58、l reasoning, facts, and hard evidence to demonstrate the soundness of a position. Their purpose is to encourage readers to accept their point of view. In order to convince readers of their point of view, writers should avoid fallacies in their reasoning.,Fallacies defined,Fallacies are statements th

59、at may sound reasonable or true but are not logically defensible and may actually be deceptive(似是而非的，欺骗性的）.,Types of fallacies,1. Hasty generalization This fallacy occurs when a conclusion is reached on the basis of insufficient data or data that is not representative. E.g. Person A travels through Town X for the first time. He sees 10 people, all of them children. Person A returns to his town and reports that there are no adult residents in Town X. E.g. My American classmates are a noisy bunch. I concl