英语词汇学zhao_Meanings.ppt

1、Meanings,2012,2.0 Meaning of words,2.1 Sense and reference 2.2 Sense of a word 2.3 Major sense relations 2.4 Semantic field theory 2.5 Semantic features 2.6 Change of meaning,2.1 Sense and reference 意义即概念 Ogden rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concept

2、s in the mind.,The semantic triangle theory,5,airplane,2.2 sense of a word * Definition of sense by foreign linguist,Geoffrey Leech: Semantics,p33,Grammatical Meaning,Grammatical meaning(语法意义)refers to that part of meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as the

3、word class, singular and plural forms of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms (forget, forgets, forgot, forgotten, forgetting).,Lexical meaning,Lexical meaning(词汇意义) is the meaning of an isolated word in a dictionary. This component of meaning is identical in all the forms of t

4、he word. E.g. go, goes, went, gone, going possess different grammatical meaning. But they have the same lexical meaning expressing the process of movement. Lexical meaning itself has at least two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.,*Definition of Sense by Chinese linguist 义位(G)=义

5、值(V)+义域(F) 义值(V)=基义(B)+陪义(C) 基义(B)=义素(S)1+义素(S)2+义素(S)n+类素(GS) 张志毅,词汇语义学,2001, P20 眷恋 (对自己喜爱的人或地方) 深切地 留恋: 旧物| 故园。 C F1 S1 GS F2 -现代汉语词典 cf：眷恋新文化,陪义包括属性陪义、情态陪义、形象陪义、风格陪义、语体陪义、时代陪义、方言陪义、语域陪义和外来陪义。 * Universally accepted definition of sense： Sense=lexical meaning+ grammatical meaning +rethoric meaning

6、 eg dog= common domestic animal kept by human beings for work、hunting， etc. or as a pet (狗/犬) + Noun (名词) + lucky, loyalty, friendship, etc.(忠诚、低三下四、摇尾乞怜，等),1) Conceptual meaning: Conceptual meaning is also called “denotative” or “cognitive” meaning. This refers to the definition given in the dictio

7、nary. It is widely assumed to be central factor in linguistic communication and is integral to the essential functioning of language. For example, MAN can be defined by the contrastive features +Human, + Male, +Adult, as distinct from GIRL, which can be defined as +Human, - Male, -Adult, Such featur

8、es are generally determinate and close- ended.,2) Associative meaning This refers to the meaning associated with the conceptual meaning, which can be further divided into the following five types: i) Connotative meaning (内涵意义(非显性) This is the communicative value attributed to an expression over and

9、above its purely conceptual meaning. For example, the word WOMAN has been traditionally burdened with unappreciabale properties (mostly imposed by the dominant male) such as “frail”, “prone to tears”, “cowardly”, “irrational”, “inconstant”, as well as virtues like “gentle”, “compassionate”, “hardwor

10、king”, “sensitive”. Connotations are relatively unstable and are thus peripheral compared with conceptual meaning. They may vary according to culture, historical period and the experience of the individual and thus are indeterminate and open-ended.,Involving the real world experience one associates

11、with an expression when one uses or hears it. Unstable: they vary considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual. Any characteristic of the referent, identified subjectively or objectively, may contribute to the connotative meaning of the expression which

12、denotes it.,13,14,Step mother,15,16,17,ii Social meaning,What a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use. Dialect: the language of a geographical region or of a social class. Time: the language of the 18th c., etc. Province: language of law, of science, of advertising, etc

13、. Status: polite, colloquial, slang, etc. Modality(方式): language of memoranda, lectures, jokes, etc. Singularity: the style of Dickens, etc.,18,domicile: very formal, official residence: formal abode: poetic home: general steed: poetic horse: general nag: slang gee-gee: baby language,19,The five clo

14、cks by Martin Joos,Frozen Formal Consultative Casual Intimate Formal Informal,20,iii) Affective meaning (情感意义) This refers to what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker or writer towards the listener or reader and/or what he or she is talking about. You may address somebody as

15、 an “idiot” to convey your despise or describe something as “marvelous” to express your positive evaluation.,Colorful meaning,Commendatory tough-minded resolute, firm shrewd childlike wise man man of unusual talent portly, stout, solid, plum slender, slim,Derogatory ruthless obstinate sly, crafty ch

16、ildish wise guy freak fleshy, fat, tubby lean, skinny, lanky, weedy, scraggy,22,iv) Reflected meaning (反映意义) This is the meaning when we associate one sense of an expression with another. For example, the word DEAR, in certain context is used in the sense “expensive” but also includes to the sense o

17、f “beloved”. When you hear click the mouse twice, you think of Gerry being hit twice by Tom so you feel excited. Many taboo terms are result of this.,v) Collocative meaning (搭配意义) This refers to what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another wor

18、d. Both PRETTY and HANDSOME can be used to mean “good-looking” but differ in the range of nouns with which they can co-occur or collocate. For example, PRETTY can go with girl, woman, flower, garden, color, village, etc. while HANDSOME can collocate with boy, man, car, vessel, overcoat, airliner, ty

19、pewriter, etc.,iv) Reflected meaning (反映意义) This is the meaning when we associate one sense of an expression with another. For example, the word DEAR, in certain context is used in the sense “expensive” but also includes to the sense of “beloved”. When you hear click the mouse twice, you think of Ge

20、rry being hit twice by Tom so you feel excited. Many taboo terms are result of this.,3) Thematic meaning (主题意义) This is what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis. e.g.: a. The young man donated the car voluntarily. b. The car was donated by a yo

21、ung man voluntarily.,2.3 Major Sense relations 1) Synonymy 同义关系 2) Polysemy 多义关系 3) Homonymy 同形异义关系 4) Hyponymy 上下义关系 5) Meronymy 包含关系 6）Antonymy 反义关系,1) Synonymy 同义关系 Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. e.g.: couch: so

22、fa homely: domestic large: big: enormous a man who has never married: a bachelor,Synonyms can be divide into the following groups according to the way they differ: Dialectal synonyms: synonyms used in different regional dialects Typical examples: 1) Synonyms belong to different geographic varieties

23、Words in British English and American English- as demonstrated on p73 2) Native words and borrowed words answer: reply bodily: corporal friendly: amicable house: mansion,3) Synonyms may belong to words of different linguistic origin: Anglo-Saxon Latin French ask question interrogate belly stomach ab

24、domen holy sacred consecrated time age epoch,Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style old man: daddy: dad: father: male parent start: begin: commence kid: child: offspring kick the bucket: pop off: die: pass away: decease Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning: difference

25、 in socio-expressive meaning: 1) steed: charger - elevated: approval horse - neutral nag: plug - vulgar: disapproval 2) collaborator: accomplice,Collocational synonyms 1) accuse of charge with rebuke for reproach with/ for 2) rotten tomatoes addled eggs rancid bacon/ butter sour milk,2) Polysemy 多义关

26、系 The Phenomenon that one word have more than one meaning is called polysemy. And such a word (a word having more than one meaning) is called a polysemic word. Historical reason: the growth and development of or change in meaning of words,3) Homonymy 同形异义关系 Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that wor

27、ds having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. Homophones: words identical in sound. rain: reign/ night: knight/ piece: peace/ leak: leek Homographs: words identical in spelling bow v.: bow n./ tear v.: tear n. / lead v.: lead n

28、. desert v.: desert n./ present v. : present n. Complete Homonyms: words identical in both sound and spelling fast adj.: fast adv.: fast v. / scale n. : scale v.,4) Hyponymy 上下义关系 Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. Super-ordina

29、te: the word which is more general in meaning. Hyponyms: the more specific words Co-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same super-ordinate,animal,livestock,cat,dog,pig,cow,wildlife,wolf,tiger,lion,5) Meronymy 包含关系 Meronymy is a term used to describe a part-whole relationship between lexical items.,tree,root,

30、trunk,branch,leaf,Meronymy reflects hierarchical classification in the lexicon. In the above diagram, for instance, root, trunk, branch and leaf are co-meronyms of TREE. Another example:,BODY,head,neck,trunk,limbs,hair,forehead,eyes,nose,etc.,6) Antonymy 反义关系 Antonymy is the relationship of opposite

31、ness of meaning. When two or more lexemes or expressions are “opposite ” in meaning, they are said to be antonyms. Further study reveals, however, that antonyms are not really opposite in every aspect of their semantic features. They share all but one crucial semantic feature that happens to be pres

32、ent in one but absent in the other. According to the semantic relationship, antonyms can be loosely divided into three categories: i. Gradable antonyms: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair.,hot: warm: cool: cold love: attachment: li

33、king: indifference: antipathy: : hate light: heavy beautiful: ugly wide: narrow ii. Complementary antonyms: Complementary antonyms are also called non-gradable antonyms. They are lexemes or expressions whose crucial semantic features are mutual exclusive. The positive of one suggests the negative of

34、 the other. a) Qualitative adjectives: dead: alive/ single: married/ male: female ,b) Nouns denoting “quality”, “state”, or “relationship”: wisdom: foolishness/ war: peace/ friendliness: hostility c) Verbs denoting “feelings, emotions”, or “action”: support: oppose/ pass: fail (a test) / hit: miss (

35、a target) d) Adverbs denoting “time”, “position and direction”, or “state”: early: late/ up: down/ gently: violently iii. Relational opposite: Relational opposites are pairs of lexemes or expressions whose crucial semantic features display a reciprocal relations. One member of the pair presupposes t

36、he other. e.g: A lends money to B presupposes B borrows money to A,a) Nouns: wife: husband/ student: teacher/ father: son b) Verbs: buy: sell/ teach: learn / give: take c) Prepositions: above: below / in front of: behind If a lexeme or expression has more than one sense, then it may have different a

37、ntonyms for each sense: fast (quick, moving quickly): slow fast (firm, firmly fixed): loose fast ( to eat no food, especially for religious reason): eat,fresh bread: stale bread fresh air: stuffy air fresh flower: faded flower Antonyms can also be used as a rhetorical device to make the expressions

38、more contrastive and impressive: Nurse: His name is Romeo, and a Montague. The only son of your great enemy. Juliet: My only love sprung from my only hate. Too early seen unknown and known too late. ( Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet),、用反义词，可以揭示事物的矛盾 、多组反义词连用，可以加强语气 、反义词可构成对偶、映衬的句子，使语言更深刻有力 、可针对反义词，临时创

39、出新词来,反义词的作用,我唯一爱的人是我唯一恨的人的儿子，我认识他太早不知道他是谁，等我知道他身份的时候又太迟了。我唯一的爱源自我唯一的恨，真相隐藏的太久而我知道的又太迟。 恨灰中燃起了爱火融融，要是不该相识，何必相逢！。,2.4 Semantic Field Theory,语义场理论 Semantic Field Theory 德国 Jost Trier 20世纪30年代,物理原术语 语义场又叫词汇场 集合、聚集、组合 语义的类聚 共同语义特征,Definition,语义场是指在所指层面上，把一群有某一共同语义特征的词汇单位聚集在一块而组成的一组词，他们相互界定语义特征，也与其它义场的边沿成

40、分区别开来。 “took the view that the vocabulary of a given language is not simply a listing of independent items , but is organized into areas or fields , within which words interrelate and define each other in various ways.”,家畜 鸡鸭牛马猪,颜色 赤橙黄绿青蓝紫,Features,联系性 I like lemon. 层次性,母场,子场,禽兽 鸟、鱼、昆虫、哺乳动物 猪、牛、马,Or

41、ange，apple，grape Red, black, green,Classification,词义的聚合关系 a. 上下义关系(hyponymy) 上义词(superordinate )：词义被别的意思包含 下义词(subordinate)：包含别的词 Carnivore(食肉动物) tiger, dog,b. 整体与部分关系(meronomy) Week Sunday, Monday.,c. 同义关系的语义场(synonymy) Small-tiny Die-pass away d. 反义关系的语义场(antonymy) 可分级语反义词（gradable antonyms） wide-

42、narrow soft-hard big-small b. 互补反义词（complementarity）：语义相互排斥，非此即彼 married-single present-absent die-live c. 关系反义词（关系反义词） buy-sell , husband -wife , lend : borrow , rent : let,词义的组合关系 语流中各个语义成分通过前后连接而形成的关系 “搭配”“You shall know a word by the company it keeps.” bite teeth blond hair Problemsolve bark dog

43、 scissors cut,2.5 Semantic features,2.5 Semantic features,P79-87,2.6 Change of Meaning P88-110,Contents,When a word loses its old meaning and comes to refer to something altogether different, the result is a change of word meaning. “ Change of meaning is a commonplace, and indeed it would appear to

44、be fundamental in living language, almost every word we use today has a slightly different meaning from the one it had a century ago: and a century ago it had a slightly different meaning from the one it had a century before that.” _ Quirk 1963:123-124,Causes of Change,Linguistic factors Ellipsis Bo

45、rrowing Analogy Figurative use of words Metaphor Metonymy,Extra-linguistic factors Historical reason Social reason Psychological reason,Ellipsis,The meaning of a word may change when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole. This is called ellipsis. gold: gold medal d

46、aily: daily newspaper,The meaning of the word “gold” has changed from material to refer to the whole phrase “gold medal”. This kind of change often occurs in habitual collocations.,Borrowing,The influx(流入) of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaning. deer (original) a wild animal of any

47、 sort from a lion to a mouse. In Middle Ages, the French word beste (=beast) became the general word. In 16th century, the Latin word animal was also adopted into the English vocabulary. Today deer can only refer to a particular kind of animal.,Analogy,If an adjective develops a new meaning, the der

48、ived noun from the adjective will have a corresponding new meaning by analogy. The process can be applied to a word of any word class.,Diplomatic (original) skillful in dealing with international relations (present) skillful in dealing with any kind of relations,Diplomatic: Diplomacy,Diplomacy (orig

49、inal) the art of dealing with international relations (present) ? art of or skill in dealing with people,Analogy,Figurative use of words-Metaphor,Metaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison based on similarity. A cunning person may be referred to as a fox. Here “fox” means someth

50、ing other than its literal meaning. The word “fox” gets the figurative meaning of “a cunning person”.,Example: foot,foot 1. Lowest part of the leg, below the ankle, on which a person or animal stands. 2. The lowest part; the bottom. the foot of a mountain the foot of a page,This meaning is derived t

51、hrough the metaphor “The last line on this page is the foot of the page.”,Metonymy,Metonymy is a figure of speech by which an object or an idea is described by the name of something else closely related to it. Seat Please take a seat. (a piece of furniture) He lost his seat in House of Commons.,The

52、word “seat” has acquired the meaning of “the right to sit as a member” through metonymy.,More Example: cradle,Cradle 1. A small low bed for an infant, often furnished with rockers 2. The earliest period of life; infancy from the cradle to the grave 3. A place of origin; a birthplace the cradle of ci

53、vilization.,These meanings are derived through the following metonyms.,Historical reason,A word has retained its original form, though its meaning has changed because the referent has changed. pen car,Social reason,Language records the speech and attitude of different social classes, so different so

54、cial varieties of language have come into being. The attitude of classes have penetrated into lexical meaning, particularly in the case of elevation and degradation. Churl, hussy, villain which were originally neutral have been down-graded as “ill-manned or bad people”.,Psychological reason,The asso

55、ciated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words, etc. are often due to psychological factors. People change word meaning owing to various psychological motives: love, respect, courtesy, suspicion, pessimism, sarcasm, irony, hatred, contempt, avoidance of embarrassment, etc.,Another perspecti

56、ve,1. The world is changing 社会是语言的外部因素（索绪尔，1980：43），但是社会又不是一般的外部因素，而是客体世界中最重要的外部因素， 因为语言是特殊的社会现象，语言跟社会诸因素有千丝万缕的关系。 1.1 旧词添新义 carship 1.2 科技发展 光环 1.3 普通义位与科技义位间的转变 menu, window 1.4 社会集团社会地位的变化 governor, lord 1.5 经济的发展 狗、马 1.6 民族或种族矛盾的原因 Dutch,2. Human being is changing 2.1 认识水平在提高 heart,brain 2.2 思想观

57、念的更新 天堂、老板、演员、士兵 2.3心理感情因素 求新： 净面、洗脸、飚客、粉丝, 闪族 求美：春风、教室 求省：机票、机场、机群、客机、班机 gold metal 求雅：euphemism 下岗、老、战略性撤退、穷 circumlocution liesteallazy 感情因素（移情）：冤家,3.The language is changing 3.1 semantic reason harvestautumn motor 左右 红白赤 3.2 grammatical reason 廉颇老矣，尚能饭否？ 3.3 pragmatic reason 斗 闻,Types of changes

58、,Widening/Extension Narrowing/Specialization Elevation/Amelioration Degeneration/Pejoration Euphemism Lexical revivals Loss of old meanings,Extension of Meaning,It is also called widening of meaning or generalization. Its a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.,Four kinds of extension,A. From specific to general B. From proper nouns to common nouns C. From concrete to abstract D. From technical terms