《英语修辞学English Rhetoric》第三章The Three Levels of Rhetorical Operations Choice of Word.ppt

English Rhetoric Chapter Three The Three Levels of Rhetorical Operations: Choice of Words Page 2 1. Three levels of rhetorical operations 2. Choice of words 2. 1 Using suitable words 2. 2 Denotation and connotation 2. 3 General words and specific words 2. 4 Abstract words and concrete words 2. 5 Short words and long words Contents of This Chapter Page 3 1. The three levels of rhetorical operations Rhetoric involves choice of words, sentence patterns, figures of speech, organization of paragraphs and composition. This process can be broken into three basic levels: Level One: words and phrases Level Two: sentence variety Level Three: organizing paragraphs into a complete text Page 4 2. Choice of words 2. 1 Using suitable words 1) Characteristic of English vocabulary: include over a half-million words, and thousands of new ones are added every year. 2) Principles of choosing words: To communicate our ideas precisely and effectively, we should choose the right words that are exact, fresh, vivid, and appropriate. E.g. a fond/ loving look, my fond/ loving mother A _ mother may spoil her child. (fond/ love) In spite of his failure, he has a _ belief in his intelligence. (fond/ love) fond fond Page 5 2. 1 Using suitable words (1) Choose the most appropriate words: E.g. (1) Mother Teresa is notorious for her work with the poor and sick in India. (2) Because he did not know either party, the arbitrator was able to take an uninterested view of the dispute. (3) The businessperson has upheld支持 a reputation for deception and deceit. E.g. If therere four of us in the car, itll be cheaper/ less inexpensive to drive than to go by train. During times of mass unemployment, there is a pool of _ labor for employers. I wish youd stop making _ jokes about my friends. cheap cheap Page 6 (2) Be aware of the audience or readers and suit to the occasion: E.g. Jacks house was destroyed by fire. Jim went to comfort him and asked him to contact the insurance company. “Cheer up, my friend,” he said, “your insurance claim will be proceeding like a house on a fire, Im sure.” For instance, when you are writing to children, you will certainly use different wording from what you would use in writing to university students even if the subject is the same. And when you write a formal legal document, you will have to use those formal set phrases as “upon termination of the trust”（在终止信托财产 时）, and it will be inappropriate for you to change it into such informal expressions as “by the end of” or “when / once the trust is over”. Similarly, although the need of “ exactness”（确切性） and “accuracy”（准确性） has been stressed in general cases（在一般情况下）， you should also note that on certain occasions（在某些场合）， you have to use vague language so as to moderate your tone（缓和语气） or to be more tactful（策略）, or roundabout（ 间接性）. Page 7 2.2 Denotation and connotation 1) Definitions: Denotation is the specific, direct, and literal meaning of a word, as described in a dictionary definition. It is also called denotative meaning or explicit meaning. 直接意义：一个词最特定的或最直接的意义；或字面意义 E.g. cheap / inexpensive: low in price, costing little money 价格低的；便 宜的； 花钱不多的（表示价格便宜点基本意思） cheap tickets(特价车票); cheap seats in a theatre（票价低的座位） yellow: n. the color yellow 黄色 adj. of the color of sth.黄色的（表示物体颜色 的基本意思） E.g. A man was killed and his son was seriously injured in an automobile accident. The boy was rushed to a hospital. The surgeon took one look at him and said, “This is my son! I cant operate on him!” Page 8 Connotation is the associative or suggestive meaning of a word. It often implies attitudes, emotions, etc. of the speaker or writer, and is also called implicit meaning.内涵或言外之意：包括单词字面意思之外普通意义的全部内涵 的意义。(Connotation指该词语一定搭配或上下文中出现的其他意义，往往比较 含蓄，带有词语的使用者的主观态度或感情色彩 ) E.g. “Proverb” would be the appropriate word to use in reference to saying from the Bible. “Saw” is often used in reference to the wisdom handed down to us anonymously. “Epigram” is often used in reference to a witty statement. Page 9 cheap: adj. Its connotative meanings are: insincere; shallow; mean; ; despicable; contemptible; stingy 不真诚的；肤浅的；小气的；卑鄙的；下流的；低级的 e.g. cheap flattery; a cheap remark; a cheap trick; a cheap crook 假意奉承，下流的话，卑鄙伎俩，卑鄙小人 yellow: n. the color yellow (denotation) Its connotative meanings are: Some people use “yellow” for pornographic literature. The oriental people are called “yellow race” because their skin are yellow. When “yellow” is used to refer to ones character (性格), it means “cowardly”. In traffic lights, “yellow” suggests a warning. E.g. Page 10 The denotative meaning is also called “explicit meaning” and connotations can be called “implicit meaning”. A certain “implicit meaning” arises in a certain context when a word, a phrase or a sentence is used by the writer or speaker, and this is the figurative use of the word, phrase or sentence. For example: It was a blow between the eyes. (那是一个沉重的打击。) If the sentence is used to describe a boxing match(拳击赛), the word“ blow” is used literally and is in its denotative sense: a hard hit with a hand. In another context, however, the word may be used in a figurative way to express connotative meanings: (to give) a sudden shock (to), (to produce) a very damaging effect (on). For example: The experiment ended in failure again. It was a blow between the eyes. Losing his job was a severe blow to his confidence. Page 11 Different kinds of connotations: (1) Words may have positive and negative connotations (2) Words have historical and social connotations (3) Words have personal and general connotations E.g. She has a slender figure. She looked thin after her illness. The child has skinny, freckled legs with prominent knees. The old horse was bony. In such stories it is exciting to break away from the predictable world we live in and to enter an unrealistic world where anything can happen. E.g. It may yet compound the misery of Iraq in the same way Watergate followed Vietnam. The old man is in the twilight of his career. Page 12 Something needed to be emphasized (1) The connotations of a word are constantly changing. E.g. She had a gay, lively personality that attracted people to her. At carnival time the streets were gay and full of people. 起舞弄清影 I rise and dance, with my shadow I play 何似在人间 On high as on earth, would it be as gay? (2) Both denotation and connotation are important aspects of the meaning of a word. (3) We can find the denotation of a word in the dictionary but we can acquire connotation only through extensive reading and attentive listening, by observing how it is actually used in speech and writing. Page 13 2.3 General words and specific words 1) Definitions: general words refer to a group or class; specific words refer to a member of that class. The specific words tend to give color and tang, tend to appeal to the imagination. General words often used for the sake of diplomacy. Good writing or speaking has both general and specific information. E.g. (1) a. Eiseley wrote about people prominent in science. b. Eiseley wrote about Darwin, Einstein and Franklin. (2) a. They were specially concerned with astronomy. b. They were specially concerned with the solar system. 2) Proprieties in writing or speaking specifically or generally E.g. He saw a ship/liner/ brig/ bark/ tank/ cargo steamer on the horizon. Some employees have been tying up the office phones with personal call. Page 14 Two correspondents on probation(作为试用)once reported to the headquarters on a recent battle. One sent back a brief but timely account of what had happened and how it ended (or perhaps how it was going on, if necessary), while the other one was still busy writing about the event with a lot of unnecessary details. Which one did well in reporting the war? Informative writing or speaking invariably has a balance of “telling” and “showing”. General and abstract expressions “tell”, while concrete and specific expressions “show”. For example, Page 15 3) Approaches to write or speak in a specific way: A) Choosing words that bring about specific instead of vague ideas E.g. (1) a. She uses simplicity in her style of writing. b. She writes with plain words and simple sentence patterns. (2) a. The new expressway will shorten the journey between the two cities a great deal. b. The new expressway will shorten the journey between the two cities by 30 percent. Page 16 B) Listing specific details C) Using illustrative examples E.g. (1) a. Near the water there was a big tree that was rather impressive. b. On the edge of the pond (池塘), at the far side (在远的那边), there was an enormous walnut tree (核桃树), standing like an open umbrella whose ribs (伞 骨) extended halfway (延伸到池塘中点的上方) across the still water of the pool (横跨静静的池塘水面). E.g. In this century, the president is much more cut off (被隔绝) from contact with the people than in earlier times (总统与人民的联系比以前更加被隔绝了). Ordinary citizens, for example, could get to see (开始见到) Abraham Lincoln directly in the White House and make their requests to him in person (且亲自向 总统提出要求). (Mary Lou Conlin (玛丽.卢.康林) Page 17 2.4 Abstract words and concrete words 1) Definitions: A concrete word has an object as its referent(所指事物) , while an abstract word , a concept. For example, peach, pear, apple and apricot are concrete words. Sweetness, fuzziness and softness are abstract words because they refer to certain qualities or certain concepts or ideas. 2) Relationship between abstract/ concrete words and general/ specific words: Abstract words and general words usually do not overlap. But this is not the case with concrete words and specific words. Words that refer to particular objects and particular actions are usually both concrete or specific. 3) Both abstract/general words and concrete/specific words have their own advantages: Page 18 2.5 Short words and long words 1) From a stylistic point of view, words that are often used may be divided into three types: formal, common, and colloquial words. Long words often refer to the formal words and some common words, while short words often refer to colloquial words and some common words. (1) a. If you wish to cash a cheque, please let us know well before you leave. b. In order to substantiate(