自考语言学复习大纲整理.pdf

自考英语语言学复习大纲自考英语语言学复习大纲 Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论绪论 1. What is linguistics?什么是语言学 1.1 Definition:Linguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language. 语言学普遍被定义为对语言进行的科学研究。 2.What is language? 什么是语言？ 2.1 Definitions: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是用于人类交流的一个任意的语音符号系统。 (1) language is a system (2) language is arbitrary (3) language is vocal (4) language is human specific Chapter 2 Phonology 音位学音位学 1.The phonic medium of language 语言的语音媒介 2.Phonetics 语音学 a.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. 普通语言学。 b.The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 语音学 c.The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 音位学 d.The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. 形态学 e.The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. 句法学 f.The study of meaning in language is called semantics. 语义学 g.The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. 语用学 h.The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. 社会语言学 i.The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycholinguistics. 心理语言学 j.The study of applications(as the recovery of speech ability) is general known as applied linguistics. 应用语言学 h.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics,(人类语言学) neurological linguistics(神经语言学), mathematical linguistics(数字语言学) and computational linguistics(计算机语言学). 1.2The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴 a. 语言的任意性（武断性）Arbitrariness b. 语言的能产性 Productivity c. 语言的双重性 Duality d. 语言的移位性 Displacement e. 语言的文化传递性 Cultural transmission 1 Prescriptive vs. Descriptive 规定性与描写性 2 Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时性与历时性 (Saussure) 3 Speech and Writing 口头语和书面语 4 Langue and Parole (both from French words) 语言（抽象）和言语（具体） (Saussure) 5 Competence and Performance 语言能力与语言运用(Chomsky) 1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学研究中的一些重要的区分 2.2 Design features 语言的甄别性特征 Hockett 人类语言和其他动物的交际系统区别开来的一些特征 语言学内部的主要分支 跨学科分支 2.1 Definition: phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language. 语音学关注的是语言世界中的所有声音three points of view 2.2 Organs of speech从三个角度审视 语言的发音器官 2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds broad and narrow transcriptionsIPA-International Phonetic Alphabet 国际音标 语音的正字表征宽式标音和严式标音 There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds: 两种标音方法 2.4 Classification of English speech sounds 英语语音的分类 (1) articulatory phonetics 发音语音学 研究语言的产生 (2) auditory phonetics 听觉语音学 研究语言怎样被感知 (3) acoustic phonetics 声学语音学 研究语音的物理属性 The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔(the throat) 喉咙 The oral cavity 口腔(the mouth) 嘴巴 The nasal cavity 鼻腔(the nose) 鼻子 One is the transcription with letter-symbols only called broad transcription. The other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics called narrow transcription. stops 闭塞音 /p/,/b/,/t/,/d/,/k/,/g/ fricatives 摩擦音 /f/,/v/,/s/,/z/,/,/,/,/,/h/ affricates 塞擦音 /t/,/d/ liquids 流音 /l/,/r/ nasals 鼻音 /m/,/n/,/ glides 滑音 /w/,/j/ bilabial 双唇音 /p/,/b/,/m/,/w/ labiodental 唇齿音 /f/,/v/ dental 齿音 / ,/ alveolar 齿龈音 /t/,/s/,/d/,/z/,/n/,/l/,/r/ palatal 鄂音 / ,/,/t/,/d/,/j/ velar 软腭音 /k/,/g/,/ glottal 喉音 /h/ Front 前元音 /i:/,/i/,/e/,/,/a/ Central 中元音 /:/,/,/ back 后元音 /u:/,/u/,/:/,/,/a:/ close vowels 闭元音 /i:/,/i/,/:/,/u/ semi-close vowels 半闭元音 /e/,/:/ semi-open vowels 半开元音 /,/:/ open vowels 开元音 /,/a/ ,/,/,/a:/ Consonants 辅音 in terms of manner of articulation 按照发音方式 in terms of place of articulation 按照发音部位 Vowels 元音 the position of the tongue in the mouth 按照舌在口腔的位置 the openness of the mouth 按照嘴的张合度 the shape of the lips 按照嘴唇形状 the length of the vowels 按照音的长度 rounded vowels 圆唇元音 /u:/,/u/,/:/,/ unrounded vowels 不圆唇元音 /i:/,/i/,/e/,/,/a/,/:/,/,/ long vowels 长元音 /a:/,/:/,/:/,/i:/,/u:/ short vowels 短元音 /,/,/,/i/,/u/,/e/,/ monophthong 单元音 在元音中还有一些双元音(diphthong),包括：/ei/,/ai/,/au/,/u/,/i/,/i/,/,/u/ 3.Phonology 音位学 3.1 phonology and phonetics 音位学和语音学 3.2 phone, phoneme, allophone 音素、音位和音位变体 3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair 音位对立，互补分布和最小对立体 3.4 Some rules in phonology 3.5 Suprasegmental features Chapter 3 Morphology形态学形态学 1.Definition:Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 形态学是语法学的一个分支，它研究的是单词的内在结构及单词的构成规律。 2.Morpheme 词素 2.1 Definition:Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language. 正如音位是音位学研究中的基本单位一样，词素是形态学研究中的基本单位。 2.2 Types of morphemes 词素的分类 2.2.3 Morphological rules:Morphological rules are the rules that govern which affix can be added to what types of stem to form a new word. 形态学规则主要指英语中通过派生 方式构成新词的构词规则，即将词缀加到词干上去构成新词的规则。 3. Compounding 复合法 3.1 Types of compound words 3.2 Features of compounds Sequential rules 序列规则 Assimilation rules 同化规则 Deletion rule 省略规则 Stress 重音 Tone 声调 Intonation 语调 free morphemes 自由词素 bound morphemes 黏着词素 roots 词根 affixes 词缀 inflectional affixes曲折词缀 derivational affixes 派生词缀 prefix 前缀 suffix 后缀 1) Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words. 在拼写上，复合词既 可以写成一个词，中间加连字符或不加连字符，也可以分开写。如 armchair, follow-up, thunder bird 2) Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element. 在语法上，复合词的词 性一般取决于复合词中第二个成分的词性。如 icy-cold 是形容词，head-strong 也是形容词，greenhouse 是名词。而例外的情况有： follow-up, crackdown, kickoff 都是名词而不是副词，而 toothpick, snowfall, facelift 都是名词而不是动词。 3) Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meaning of its components. 在语意上，复合 词的意义具有习语特性，许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分的意义的总和。如 hotdog, greenhouse 等。 4) Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress. 在语音上，复合词 的重音总是在第一个构成成分上，而次重音在第二个构成成分上。 这一点可以帮助我们用来区分两种-ing 的形式，一种是作为名词前修饰语的-ing 形式，另一种是作为复合词的前一部分。如 running dog 重 Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学句法学 What is Syntax? Definition:Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. 句法学研究语言的句子结构。 1.Syntax as a system of rules 句法是规则系统 Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. 句法是 一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，句子由单词组合而成。 2. Sentence structure 2.1 The basic components of a sentence 句子的构成 A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at lea st a subject（主语）and its predicate（谓语）which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 句子是一个结构独立和完整的语法单位，这一单位通常由一些单词组成一个完整 的陈述句、问句或命令。一个句子至少包含一个主语和一个谓语，而谓语又包含一个限定动词或一个动词词组。 2.2.Types of sentence 句子的类型 2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences 句子的线性和层次结构 1) The simple sentence 简单句 A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. 简单句由一个子句构成，该 子句包含一个主语和一个谓语，且独立构成句子。 2) The coordinate sentence 并列句 A coordinate sentence contains two clause joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”but” ”or”. 并列句包含两个子句， 由 and, but, or 等并列连词连接。 3) The complex sentence 复合句 A complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. That is, the two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequ al status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate clause is normally called an embedded clause, and the clause into which it is emb edded is called a matrix clause. 复合句包含两个或两个以上的子句，其中一个被并入另一个句子。复合句中两个句子的地位是不同的，一个句子从 属于另一个句子。被并入或是从属的子句通常被称为子句，而包含子句的子句被称为主句。 1) The linear word order of a sentence 句子的线性词序 When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. Meanwhile, they are heard o r read as arranged one after another in a sequence. This sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that the structure of a sentence is linear.我 们说出或写下一个句子，其中的词语是按次序一个接一个出现的。同时，对方也是一个接一个次序听到这个词语的。句子中词语的这种有 次序的排列表明，句子的结构是线性的。 2) The hierarchical structure of a sentence 句子的层次结构 The superficial arrangement of words in a linear sequence does not entail that sentences are simply linearly structured. Sentence structure is hierarc hical in nature. 组成句子的单词表面上的线性排列并不意味着句子仅仅是线性结构的。句子实际上是有层次结构的。 3)Tree diagrams of sentence structure 句子结构树形图 The hierarchical order can be best illustrated with a tree diagram of constituent structure. 句子的层次结构可以用各组成部分的树形图来很好地 说明。见课文 6770 页。 In addition, the hierarchical structure of sentences can also be illustrated by using brackets and subscript labels. 另外，句子的层次结构还可以用括 号和写在下角的标记来标示。 3.Syntactic categories 句法类型 Important note: NP just contain a noun, VP just contain a verb, PP just contain a preposition and AP just contain an adjective. 重要提示：一个名词词组只包含一个名词，一个动 词词组只包含一个动词，一个介词词组只包含一个介词，一个形容词词组只包含一个形容词。 4. Grammatical relations: Our linguistic knowledge includes an awareness of a distinction between the structural and logical functional relations of constituents. 语法关系:我们的 语言知识包括对组成成分的结构和逻辑功能关系的认识。 5.Combinational rules 组合规则 6. Syntactic movement and movement rules 句法位移和位移规则 7. Toward a theory of Universal Grammar (UG) 1)Lexical categories 词类 2)Phrasal categories 词组类型 Major lexical categories 主要词类： Minor lexical categories 次要词类： Noun (N) 名词：student Verb (V) 动词：like Adjective (Adj) 形容词：tall Adverb (Adv) 副词：loudly Determiner (Det) 限定词：the, a, this, his Auxiliary (Aux) 助动词：can, do, will Preposition (Prep) 介词：in, at, over Pronoun (Pron) 代词：he, she, us, mine Conjunction (Conj) 连词：and, or, but, while Interjection (Int) 感叹词：oh, ah, eh noun phrase (NP) 名词词组 verb phrase (VP) 动词词组 prepositional phrase (PP) 介词词组 adjective phrase (AP) 形容词词组 1) phrase structure rules or rewrite rule 短语结构规则 2) the recursive-ness of phrase structure rules 短语结构规则的循环性 3) X-bar theory X-标杆理论 1) NP-movement and WH-movement 名词词组位移与 WH 位移 2) Other types of movement 其他类型的位移 3) D-structure and S-structure 深层结构与表层结构 4) Move a general movement rule 移动一条普遍规则 Case Condition 格条件 Adjacency Condition 毗邻条件 General principles of Universal Gramma r The parameters of Universal Grammar 普遍语法参数 Chapter 5Semantics 语义学语义学 1.what is semantics? 什么是语义学 Definition:Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning. 语义学对语言意义的研究。 2.Some views concerning the study of meaning 语义研究的几种主要理论 3.Lexical meaning 词汇意义 3.1 Sense and reference 意义和所指 Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. 意义，是词汇内 在的、抽象的、游离于语境之外的意义，是词汇所有特征的集合。这个意义正是词典编纂者感兴趣的。 Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 所指，是词汇所指称的客观世界中的事物，所指讨论的是语言形式和非语言世界之间的关系。 3.2 Major sense relations 主要意义关系 4. Sense relations between sentences 句子间的语义关系 5. Analysis of meaning 意义分析 Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学语用学 1.what is pragmatics? 什么是语用学 1.1Definition:Pragmatics, it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 语用学研究语言使用者是如何运用语句进行成功交际 1)the name theory 命名论 2)the conceptualist view 意念论 3)contextualism 语境论 4)behaviorism 行为主义论 1)Synonymy 同义关系 2)polysemy 多义关系 3)homonymy 同音/同形异义关系 4)hyponymy 上下义关系 5)antonymy 反义关系 1) Dialectal synonyms 方言同义词-synonyms used in different regional dialects 2) Stylistic synonyms 文体同义词-synonyms differing in style 3) Stylistic that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning 情感意义或评价意义不同的同义词 4) Collocational synonyms 搭配同义词 5) Semantically different synonyms 语义上有一定差别的同义词 同音异义词 homophones 同形异义词 homographs 完全同音同形异义词 complete homonymys gradable antonyms 可分等级的反义词 complementary antonyms 互补性反义词 relational antonyms 关系反义词 Componential analysis a way to analyze lexical meaning 语义成分分析法一种词义分析法 Predication analysis a way to analyze sentence meaning 述谓结构分析一种句义分析法 superordinate 上义词 hyponyms 下义词 co-hyponyms 并列下义词，具有同一个上义词的下义词叫做并列下义词 的。 1.2 Pragmatics vs. semantics 语用学和语义学 What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.语用学和语义学的根本区别 在于是否考虑语境。不考虑语境，语义研究属于传统的语义学范围；考虑语境，语义研究就成了语用学的研究范围。 1.3 Context 语境 Context, it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境，一般认为它是由说话者和听者所共有的知识 构成的。 1.4 Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义 The meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a prediction.句子意义是抽象的， 是不依赖语境的； 而话语意义是具体的， 是依赖与语境的。The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete,and context dependent. 话语意义基于句子意义，是句子意义在特定交际情境或者语境中的具体体现。 2.Speech act theory 语言行为理论 3.Principle of conversation 会话原则 Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics 历史语言学历史语言学 1.The purpose and significance of the historical study of language 对语言进行历史研究的目的和意义 2. The nature of language change 语言变化的本质 3.The historical development of English英语的历史发展 3.1Major periods in the history of English 英语历史发展的主要阶段 locutionary act言内行为（表达字面意义的行为） illocutionary act 言外行为（表达说话人意图） perlocutionary act 言后行为（由话语所带来的结果或变化） representatives 阐述类 directives 指令类 commissives 承诺类 expressives 表达类 declarations 宣告类 the maxim of quantity 数量准则 the maxim of quality质量准则 the maxim of relation 关联准则 the maxim of manner 方式准则 Diachronic 历时 Synchronic 共时 Old English古英语 Middle English 中古英语 Modern English 现代英语 3.2 Linguistic change of English 英语语言系统的变化 4.Language family 语系 4.1 Classifying genetically related languages 语系的划分 4.2 The Indo-European Family 5.The causes of language change 语言变化的原因 Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics 社会语言学社会语言学 1.Language variation 语言变异 1)sound change 语音系统的变化 2)morphological change 形态的变化 3)syntactic change 句法的变化 4)lexical change 词汇的变化 5) semantic change 语义的变化 vowel sound change 元音的变化 sound loss 语音的丧失 sound addition 语音的增加 sound movement 语音的位移 affix loss 词缀的丧失 affix addition 词缀的添加 rule loss 规则的丧失 rule addition 规则的添加 rule change 规则方面的变化 lexical loss 词汇的丧失 lexical addition词汇的添加 semantic broadening 语义的广义化 semantic narrowing 语义的狭义化 semantic shift 语义的演变 1)the Indo-European Family印欧语系 2)the Sino-Tibetan Family 汉藏语系 3)the Anstronesian Family 南岛语系 4)the Afroasiatic Family 亚欧语系 1) Sound assimilation 语音的同化 2) Rule simplification and regularization 规则的简化与统一 3) Internal borrowing 内部借用 4) Elaboration 规则的细化 5) Sociological triggers 社会因素 6) Cultural transmission 文化传播 7) Childrens approximation toward the adult grammar 儿童对成人语法的习得 1) Speech community 言语社区 2) Speech variety 言语变体 3) Regional variation 地域变异 4) Social variation 社会变异 5) Stylistic variation 文体变异 6) Idiolectal variation 个人言语变异 2.Standard and nonstandard language 标准语与非标准语 3.Diglossia and bilingualism 双言与双语现象 4.Ethnic dialect 少数民族方言 5.Social dialect 社会方言 Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics 心理语言学心理语言学 1.The biological foundations of language 语言的生理基础 2.Linguistic lateralization 语言侧化 3.The language centers 语言中枢 4.The critical period for language acquisition 语言习得关键期 1) standard and nonstandard language 标准语与非标准语 2) lingua francas 通用语 3) pidgins 洋泾滨语 4) creoles 克里奥尔语 1) diglossia 双言现象 2) bilingualism 双语现象 1) black English, a case study of ethnic dialect 黑人英语，少数民族方言的个案研究 2) the social environment of black English 黑人英语的社会环境 1) education varieties 教育变体 2) age varieties 年龄变体 3) gender varieties 性别变体 4) register varieties 语域变体 5) address terms 称谓语 6) slang 俚语 7) linguistic taboo 禁忌语 8) euphemism 委婉语 1)the case of Phineas Gage 盖奇案例 2) the human brain 人的大脑 3)brain lateralization 大脑左右半球的侧化 1) left hemispheric dominance for language 左半球的语言优势 2) dichotic listening research 两耳分听实验 1) Brocas area 布罗卡区 2) Wernickes area 韦尼克区 3) the angular gyrus 角形脑回 4) language perception, comprehension and production 语言的感知、理解与表达 1) the critical period hypothesis 关键期建设 2) the case of Genie and the degeneration of language faculty with age 吉尼案例与语言机制退化 5.Language and thought 语言与思维 Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 语言习得语言习得 1.First language acquisition 第一语言习得 2.Stages of first lan