城市认知地图.pptx

文Harry P. Bahrick,THE COGNITIVE MAP OF A CITY: FIFTY YEARS OF LEARNING AND MEMORY 城市认知地图：50年的学习和记忆,郑晓虹,一个城市的认知地图,What is cognitive map?,1,波士顿市民公共意图,洛杉矶市民公共意图,泽西市民公共意图,三、认知地图的性质 认知地图是“头脑中的环境”，因此可称之为“心理地图”、“环境意象”。 如何形成认知地图，环境心理学家持有两种不同的观点模拟观点和命题观点。 模拟观点认知地图是真实环境在记忆中的复制品，它与物质环境大致上一点点相互对应，似乎是一幅贮存在头脑中的环境的图像，因此称之为“心理图像”或环境的“表象”。 命题观点更加强调通过对信息赋予意义加以贮存。也就是说，客观环境被再现为很多相互联系的概念，每一种概念都会引起许多联想，如颜色、名称、相应的声音、高度等，人们借助于这种命题网从记忆中寻找有关的各种联想，并由所画的草图体现出来。 后续研究倾向将两种观点结合,认知地图的特点 (一)多维信息的综合再现 （持久性和稳定性） (二)模糊性和片断性 (三)个人差异 1当地居民与外来者 2活动区域 3性别差异 4年龄差异 5人格化地图,认知地图的功能 (一)解决空间问题 (二)接受新环境信息的基础 (三)交往功能,走进亨利的认知地图世界,How does the cognitive map work?,2,cognitive map认知地图,The study of space perception has a long history in philosophy and psychology,but empirical work has only recently been extended from the microspace of the laboratory to the macrospace in which people live. Tolman (1948) first used the term “cognitive map” in an important paper in which he discussed how rats find their way in a maze. 空间认知研究在哲学和心理学中有很长的历史，但实证研究是最近才从实验室空间扩展到围观空间在其中的人 生活。托尔曼（1948）在一篇重要的论文中，他讨论了鼠在迷宫中找到出路的方式，并且用了“认知地图”的概念。,托尔曼一生研究行为心理学，他的理论揉合了当时众多心理学理论，在其过世后他的理论和研究方法更促成了20世纪50年代末期的心理学“认知革命”。 他提出整体行为模式和中介变量的概念，弥补华生古典行为主义的缺陷，同时他建构了符号理论，是认知心理学的先驱。 代表作品 动物与人的目的性行为。,托尔曼的实验之一所用的装置如下图所示，实验开始时，白鼠被置于起点处，食物放在其中一条通路的一端。白鼠从起点至食物放置处为一次尝试。托尔曼在实验中发现，若干次尝试之后，白鼠从起点到达食物处的速度明显提高，结果如右图所示。,认知地图（或认知图）是托尔曼符号学习理论中的一个重要概念。指在过去经验的基础上产生于头脑中的某些类似于一张现场地图的模型。托尔曼把白鼠学习迷津的行为看作是认知学习，认为白鼠学到食物所在方位，并非只是机械式的左转右转的活动联结在一起，而是它走过之后，把迷津通路中某些特征（行动方向、到达目的的距离及其之间的关系）做为符号标志，并通过对符号之间关系（手段目的关系）辨别，获得迷津通路的整体概念，形成一个认知地图。,ecologically oriented research 空间导向研究,Since then the cognitive maps of children and adults have become a topic of increasing interest to geographers, architects, urban planners, sociologists, and others, but these scholars looked in vain to the psychological literature for information about the process by which such maps get into peoples heads. 自那时以来，关于儿童和成人的认知地图如何进入人们的大脑已经成为一个重要的话题，地理学家、建筑师、城市规划师、社会学家和其他人都对此开始进行大量的研究。,The pioneer work of Lynch (1960) emphasized the need for more ecologically oriented research, and during the last 20 years investigators have responded to this need with a spate of studies of environmental space perception. This literature has been ably reviewed by Evans (1980) and Siege1 and White (1975). Psychologists were slow to respond to this need because learning about ecological space is an extended process that does not lend itself readily to the type of controls deemed essential for scientific study. The recent impetus to ecological research reflects new and broader criteria for evaluating scientific contributions and a growing acceptance of some sacrifices of controls in a tradeoff which encourages the investigation of important problems that can only be studied in an ecological setting (Bahrick & Karis, 1982). 先驱工作者林奇的（1960）强调空间化研究的需要，并在过去20年调查中不断强调这种需求，一系列的研究环境中的空间知觉。本文献已巧妙地回顾了伊万斯（1980）和白（1975）。心理学家很慢才意识到以应对这一需要，因为学习生态空间是一个心理学的扩展研究过程，不容易被视为必要的科学研究的类型。生态的研究反映了评价的新标准和研究心里学的新动力，评估的科学贡献和越来越多的控制而牺牲一些需要鼓励，只能在一个生态的重要问题的调查研究设置（bahrick和卡里斯，1982）。,道路（path） 边界（edge） 区域（domain） 节点（node） 标志物（landmark）,自我中心定向系统,固定点定向系统,直角坐标参照系,无论儿童还是成人，在熟悉新环境过程中，总是从重要标志开始。一般来说，在建筑密集、视野受限的城市环境，人们从重要标志开始，沿着某几条道路探索，首先形成环境的路线型意象，五要素中标志、路径、节点起更重要的作用。路线型意象不断丰富和内化，积累到一定程度，就会上升为鸟瞰型意象。,路线型和鸟瞰型认知地图,long-term memory长效机制下的研究,The research reported here deals with the acquisition of spatial information about a city during a 4-year period of residence, and the subsequent loss of this information over a period of 46 years. The investigation differs in several ways from earlier work on environmental cognition. Earlier investigations have emphasized the acquisition process, but have provided little information about long-term retention. This is a study of long-term memory. Other major differences are methodological. 该研究报告对城市的空间信息进行统计，在46年期间，有不少信息已经有损毁。该调查不同于早期的环境认知工作的几种方法。此前的调查强调采集过程，但提供了很少的长期数据保留信息。这是一个长期数据的研究。其研究方法也相当独特。,The present study involves the administration of 5 subtests, which yield 23 indicants of knowledge. The interrelations among these indicants provide a broad view of the available spatial information. Finally the method of cross-sectional adjustment (Bahrick, 1979) is used in an attempt to compensate for the lack of control over variables of acquisition and of rehearsal. The cognitive map of a city has special appeal to us as a vehicle for the study of long-term ecological memory because this type of knowledge requires the integration of linguistic with nonlanguage encoded information. The content areas that we had previously investigated were either based completely on language (the retention of the Spanish language) or they largely excluded linguistic organization, for example, memory for peoples faces (Bahrick, Bahrick, Bahrick, 1983). 目前的研究涉及5项内容，涉及23个指标。这些指标之间的相互关系提供的可用空间信息一览无余。 最后，横断面调整方法（巴利克，1979）是用来弥补在变量的采集控制的缺乏和排练。一个城市的认知地图 对我们作为长期生态记忆研究车辆特殊的吸引力，因为这类知识需要语言与非语言编码的信息集成我们先前调查的耳鼻喉领域，要么完全基于语言（保留西班牙语）或他们在很大程度上被排除在语言组织，例如，记忆 人民的面孔（bahrick，bahrick & wittlinger，1975；bahrick，1983）,cross-sectional横断面研究,横断面研究（cross-sectional study）是按照事先设计的要求在某一人群中应用普查 和抽样调查 的方法收集特定时间内疾病的描述性资料，其描述疾病的分布和/或观察某些因素与疾病之间的关系。 这种研究所收集的资料一般不是过去的暴露史或疾病情况，也不是通过追踪观察将来的暴露史或疾病情况，故又称为现况研究或现况调查。 这种研究所得到的疾病患病率，一般为在特定时点与范围内某群体的患病频率，故还称为患病率研究（plevalence study）。,资料整理和分析 1. 主要分析指标是现患率、暴露率等描述 暴露组和非暴露组疾病的现患率： 暴露组疾病的现患率=暴露组现患病人数 /暴露的总人数 非暴露组疾病的现患率=非暴露组现患病人数 /非暴露的总人数 患病组和非患病组危险因素的暴露率： 患病组危险因素的暴露率=患病组的暴露人数 /患病组的总人数 非患病组危险因素的暴露率=非患病组的暴露人数 /非患病组的总人数,资料整理和分析 2. 显著性检验：可用2 检验，以说明不同现患率或暴露率 之间有无显著性差别。 3. 危险度估计：通过比较不同现患率可以得到现患比 （plevalence ratio, PR）或现患优势比（plevalence odds ratio, POR）。 注：PR=暴露组现患率/非暴露组现患率（PR=1，提示暴露与非暴露之间的患病率无差异；PR1，提示暴露因素是危险因素；PR1，提示暴露因素是保护因素），一般PR值越大，提示该暴露因素为所研究疾病的病因因素线索的可能性越大。PR与POR意义相同。,Subject Recruitment and Test Administration测试人员选择,To conduct a cross-sectional investigation of the acquisition and maintenance of ecological knowledge, one must find a situation in which many individuals have acquired certain knowledge, but at different times. Further requirements are that one can estimate with acceptable reliability the knowledge originally acquired by each individual, and the exposure to relevant information during the retention interval. Knowledge of a college town on the part of those who were students at that college meets most of these requirements. Students come to the town at about the same age, they typically leave 4 years later, and the time of residence, as well as visits to the city after graduation, can usually be established with reasonable accuracy. Delaware, Ohio, turned out to be particularly well suited to the purpose, because the central portion of the city, containing the campus, had changed very little during a period of almost 50 years preceding the study. 进行生态知识的获取和维护一个横断面调查，必须找到一种情况，许多人已经获得了一定的知识，但在不同的时代。进一步的要求是估计一个可以接受的初始可靠性知识，和接触到相关的信息在评价指标区间。了解一个大学城的一部分，那些谁是学生在该学校，满足大多数这些要求。大约在同一个年龄的学生来到镇上，他们通常离开 4年后，和居住时间，以及参观城市毕业后，通常可以建立合理的准确性。特拉华，俄亥俄，被证明是特别适合的目的，因为城市的中心部分，包含校园，几乎没有改变，在一段近50年前的研究。 地点、人员、时间轴,Subject Recruitment and Test Administration主题招聘和测试管理 Eight hundred fifty-one individuals (359 males, 492 females) participated in the investigation. Of these, 275 were undergraduate students at Ohio Wesleyan University, who were tested to obtain data concerning the acquisition of the cognitive map. Fifty-one of these were freshman tested during the fourth week of residence; 63 were freshman tested during the eighth month of residence; 64 were sophomores tested during the 17th month of residence; 53 were juniors tested during the 26th month of residence; and 44 were seniors tested during the 35th month of residence. Five hundred seventy-six were alumni of Ohio Wesleyan University who attended the college between 1929 and 1979 and were tested to obtain data concerning retention of knowledge. The alumni were assigned to one of 8 groups based upon their date of graduation. Table I shows the number of years intervening between graduation and the time of testing, and specifies various subject characteristics. Freshmen and sophomores were recruited from introductory psychology classes on the basis of a course requirement. Juniors and seniors were recruited from advanced undergraduate psychology courses and from sororities and fraternities. Most junior and senior students were paid for participating in the study. 八百五十一个人（359名男性，492名女性）参加了调查。其中，275名俄亥俄卫斯理大学的本科生，谁进行了测试，以获得数据公司 有机地交叉融合认知地图的采集。51在第四周这些新生居住的测试；63是新生居住的第八个月期间进行测试；64是大二测试居住第十七个月时；53是学生居住的第二十六个月期间进行测试；44的老年人居住在第三十五个月的测试。五百七十六例俄亥俄卫斯理大学的校友谁参加了在1929和1979年之间的学习，并进行了测试，以获得关于保留知识的数据。校友被分配到8组之一的基础上 在他们的毕业日期。表我显示了多少年之间的介入毕业和测试时间，并指定不同的主题特征。一、二年级学生进行局部它从心理学入门课程的课程要求的基础上。高年级是先进的本科心理学课程和联谊会和联谊会招募。 大多数初中生和高中生都参加了学习。,Later comparisons revealed no significant effects on performance due to the type of incentive offered for participation. Recruiting of alumni subjects turned out to be much more difficult. All alumni subjects were unpaid volunteers. Some were tested on campus on the occasion of a visit, others were tested at alumni meetings conducted in other cities, and still others self-administered the tests in their home and returned the completed test by mail to the investigator. The place of test administration and the presence or absence of a test administrator constitute potentially significant procedural variables. 后来的比较显示，没有显着的影响，由于参与的激励类型的性能。校友会的招募被证明是更困难的。所有校友受试者是无偿的志愿者。一些被测试的校园在访问之际，其他人在校友会在其他城市进行了测试，还有一些自我测试在他们的家，并通过邮寄给调查人员完成了测试。测试管理和测试人员的存在或不存在的地方构成潜在的重要程序 几个变量。,It turns out that being tested in Delaware significantly improved performance. The effect was dealt with by assigning those subjects tested on campus the extreme score (0) on the variable specifying the interval since the most recent visit to Delaware prior to taking the test. The variable of recency of visit was included in the multiple regression analysis described in more detail later. The decision to have subjects administer their own tests involves other considerations. 事实证明，正在测试在特拉华显着提高性能。通过分配这些受试者在校园内的极端得分（0）上的变量指定的效果进行了处理 他间隔自最近访问特拉华之前采取的测试。近因访问变量的更详细的描述后，多元回归分析。分 有人来管理自己的试验涉及的其他因素。,Subject Recruitment and Test Administration测试人员选择,Subject Recruitment and Test Administration测试人员选择,These alumni were recruited by mail, and problems of sampling bias will be considered first. Sampling error could result from the selection of alumni who were asked to be subjects, from the fact that not all of those who were asked agreed to serve, and from the fact that some of those who agreed to serve failed to return their completed tests. It is therefore possible that the respondents were not a representative sample of alumni and that their performance may not be typical. Although some sampling bias is almost certainly present, several considerations suggest that the effects are minor. Solicitations were extended to all alumni who had majored in psychology and whose addresses were available. 这些校友是通过邮件招募的，而抽样偏差的问题将首先考虑。抽样误差可能会导致从选择的校友被要求是受试者，从事实并不是所有的人都同意服务，并从一个事实，即一些同意服务的人没有返回他们完成的测试。因此，有可能的受访者没有 一个有代表性的校友样本，他们的表现可能不是典型的。虽然一些抽样偏差几乎肯定存在，几方面的考虑表明，影响是次要的。所以本次测试采用的数据是所有的寄件地址可用的校友。 邮件的可获得性,In addition, invitations were extended to a large number of alumni who had taken a course in psychology from the investigator. Most often this was an introductory course elected by approximately 90% of students at the college. Of those who were asked 81 070 agreed to serve, and 84% of those who agreed ultimately returned the completed self-administered tests. Among those 19% who failed to answer the original request were many who did so for reasons that are probably uncorrelated with test performance, for example, they were abroad or they had moved without leaving a forwarding address. Failure to return tests that were mailed (16%) constitutes a more serious selection problem, because of the likelihood that at least some of these alumni attempted the test, but found it too difficult or tiresome to complete. 此外，邀请被扩展到大量的校友谁曾在心理学课程的研究者。最常见的是，这是一个由约90% 选举产生的入门课程学校的学生。那些被要求81%同意服务，和那些同意最终返回完成自填试验84%。在这19%个没有回答的人当中 他最初的要求是许多人这样做的原因，可能与测试性能不相关的，例如，他们在国外或他们已经移动，而不留下一个转发地址。失败 还通过试验（16%）构成了一个更严重的选择问题，因为完成这些测试实在是太痛苦了。 痛苦的测试,The overall effect on the data cannot be estimated with precision, but it is probably small. This is so even if the missing data represent a biased subsample, since the overall mean would be weighted more heavily by the 84% for whom data are complete, than by the 16% for whom data are missing. Additional problems associated with self-administration of tests may have arisen because of failure to follow some of the printed instructions sent with the test. Consulting others about answers or using maps or other sources of information are among the obvious examples. No time limits were set for the tests so that there are no problems of adherence to such limits, but it is possible that the average time spent with the test is significantly longer for those who administered their own tests, and that this affected the data. 数据的整体效果不能用精确的估计，但它可能是小的。这是即使丢失的数据代表了一种偏见的样本，从总体平均将加权为完整的84%的数据结果。自我管理测试相关的附加问题，因为一些印刷的说明书测试发送。咨询别人关于答案或使用地图或其他信息来源是明显的例子。没有时间限制设置测试，但是它可能对研究成果有重要的影响。 没有考虑到测试时间的影响,Subject Recruitment and Test Administration测试人员选择,Alumni subjects were unpaid volunteers whose motivation was primarily a desire to support the research efforts of the investigator. This condition favors compliance with the directions of the test. The best evidence regarding the aggregate effect of the several sources of bias which have been discussed comes from comparisons of test performance of alumni who were tested by an administrator with performance of those alumni who administered their own tests. Although these differences generally favor those who administered their own test, the differences failed to reach statistical significance, and are generally not large enough to cast doubt on or alter the major conclusions of this study. 校友主题是无偿的志愿者，他们的动机主要是一个愿望，以支持研究人员的研究工作。这种情况有利于符合测试的方向。TH 关于已讨论的几个来源的偏见的总效果的最佳证据来自测试性能的比较，由管理员与体育的校友进行了讨论 这些校友管理自己的试验方法。虽然这些差异通常有利于那些管理自己的测试，差异没有达到统计学意义， 一般来说，并没有足够大的怀疑或改变本研究的主要结论。,The previous discussion provides an illustration of problems likely to be encountered in ecologically oriented research involving large numbers of participants. The solutions adopted here represent compromises with optimum procedures with regard to subject selection and control over test conditions. The acceptability of such compromises is a matter which does not allow facile generalizations. The decisions made here reflect subjective judgments concerning the value of data not obtainable by standard methods, and expectations regarding the magnitude of effects associated with various sources of bias. Such decisions must usually be made without adequateinformation, and penalties for errors in judgment are likely to be severe. The consequences of errors may not be evident until a time when much effort and expense have been invested. The option to start over is less attractive than in the case of most laboratory investigations in which mistakes have been made. These considerations must be included in evaluating large scale ecologically oriented research, and they have been discussed elsewhere (Bahrick & Karis, 1982). 以前的讨论提供了一个说明可能会遇到的问题，在生态为导向的研究，涉及大量的参与者。这里采用的解决方案代表公司 与在试验条件方面的题材选择和控制优化程序。这种妥协的可接受性是一个不允许浅显的概括的问题。这个 在这里作出的决定反映主观判断有关的数据的值不可以通过标准的方法，和预期的幅度与各种来源的 偏置。这样的决定必须是没有充足的信息，对于判断错误的处罚可能是严重的。错误的后果可能不明显，直到亩 努力和费用已投资。开始的选项是不那么有吸引力的比在大多数实验室调查的情况下，已犯的错误。这些考虑必须 包括大型生态导向的评估研究，他们已在别处讨论（巴利克和卡利斯，1982）。 忽略城市大型空间导向的研究,Composition of the Tests试验组成,Based on our own exploratory work and the reports of others, we decided against the use of hand-drawn sketch maps in this investigation. Problems reported by others include the confounding of drawing ability with spatial knowledge (Golledge, 1976; Blaut & Stea, 1974) and the lack of independence among drawn elements (Evans, 1980). Our own experience showed that the hand-drawn sketch maps interact with other tests that we wanted to administer, and that they would excessively prolong the time required for total testing. We administered the following 5 subtests: (1) free recall of streets, (2) free recall of buildings and other landmarks, (3) visually cued recall, (4) verbally cued recall, and ( 5 ) matching. All subjects took 4 out of these 5 tests in the order listed, with one-half of the subjects arbitrarily assigned to the visually cued recall test and the other half to the verbally cued test. An effort to minimize interaction effects among subtests guided the sequence in which the subtsts were administered, and the decision to administer either a verbally or a visually cued recall test, but not both to the same subjects. 根据我们自己的探索性工作和其他人的报告，我们决定反对在本次调查中使用手绘草图。别人报告的问题包括绘画的混淆空间知识的能力（高雷奇，1976；布劳特和蒸汽，1974）和缺乏独立性之间绘制的元素（伊万斯，1980）。我们自己的经验表明，手绘草图地图交互 与其他测试，我们想管理，他们会过分延长总测试所需的时间。我们给予以下5项：（1）街道自由回忆，（2）自由回忆的建筑和其他标志性建筑，（3）视觉线索回忆（4）口头线索回忆，和（5）匹配。所有受试者都拿出了这5个测试中的4个测试中的一个一半的S 方法任意分配到视觉线索回忆测验和口头线索测试的另一半。尽量减少在测试交互作用引导序列中，集合管理和决策管理，无论是口头或视觉线索回忆测验，但不能同时对同一对象。,A. FREE RECALL OF STREETS Subjects were required to list all street names of Delaware that they could recall. They then were required to classify each listed street as running in either a north-south direction or an east-west direction, and to arrange the streets assigned to each category in correct order. The streets running northsouth were to be ordered beginning with the street farthest west (assigned number 1) to the street farthest east; the streets categorized as running eastwest were to be ordered from the street farthest north to the street farthest south. 受试者被要求列出他们可以回忆起的特拉华的所有街道名称。然后，他们需要进行分类，每一个上市的街道，无论是在南北方向或东西 方向，并按照正确的顺序安排分配给各类别的街道。从南北街道是街道最西部的命令开始（编号1）的 街道远东；从街道最北面的东西向的街道编号至最南方。,Composition of the Tests试验组成,B. FREER RECALLO F BUILDINGASN D OTHERL ANDMARKS This subtest consisted of two sections. The first section required free recall of names of buildings and landmarks in the city of Delaware; the second section required free recall of the names of buildings and landmarks on the campus of Ohio Wesleyan University. Each section of the test further required that the recalled items be ordered se