战略柔性：一个世界级制造业新的现实外文翻译

中文 3845 字 本科毕业论文（设计） 外 文 翻 译 原文： Strategic flexibility: a new reality for world-class manufacturing The development of the concept of flexibility has been slow in the manufacturing literature because of the relatively stable market structure and minimal competitive pressure prior to the 1960s. In fact, manufacturing was not considered particularly important in the formulation of business strategy. As the competitiveness problems increased, practitioners and academicians began to recognize that manufacturing strategy was vital in supporting changes of corporate strategy. Consequently, a number of analytical models and empirical studies were developed to enhance manufacturing flexibility. According to Suarez, Cusumano, and Fine (1995), most empirical studies on manufacturing flexibility serve one of the following purposes: (1) to develop taxonomies of flexibility; (2) to investigate the relationship between flexibility and performance; (3) to cover historical and economical analyses of flexibility; and (4) to develop strategic frameworks for flexibility. Carlsson (1989), Sethi and Sethi (1990), Hyun and Ahn (1992), and Upton (1994) are just a few research works that provide further literature reviews on flexibility. Flexibility is often regarded as one of the competitive priorities, along with cost, quality, and innovation. Just as low cost and high quality have already become a requirement for market entry, flexibility might ultimately be the key to enhancing a firms competitive ability. While uncertainty can be a threat to some firms, it provides opportunity to those with higher degrees of flexibility, either market-oriented or resources-oriented. Firms that are able to deal with uncertainties that their competitors cannot have market-oriented flexibility. By reducing market uncertainties or exerting influence on customer expectations, firms have more strategic choices and can adopt a more proactive approach to competing. Firms with highly flexible production systems have resource-oriented flexibility and can be more responsive to the changing market. By combining these two concepts, Figure 1 shows the dominant competitive priorities corresponding to the firms ability to cope with uncertainties. Not only can world-class manufacturing firms adapt to the changing environment swiftly, but they also can influence market demand (e.g., by creating uncertainties or customer expectations that competitors cannot deal with). Both reactive and proactive approaches have proved to be equally important and require different types of flexibility. Instead of focusing on one particular dimension of flexibility, world-class manufacturing firms need a strategic perspective of flexibility - the ability to quickly adjust their competitive objectives to meet new business conditions. In a stable competitive environment like decades ago, a competitive strategy simply involved defining a competitive position and then defending it. Since the competitive environment has changed rapidly and unpredictably, however, new knowledge and capabilities are needed to support any strategy to create a sustainable competitive advantage. Therefore, the goal of the latest developments in manufacturing strategy is to attain strategic flexibility. Competitive advantage commonly refers to the creation of a production-distribution system that has a unique advantage over its competitors. Achieving competitive advantage does not imply that the company must always do better than the competitors in all areas. The key is to do certain things better in most of the areas. Deciding which areas to target is the central issue of competitive priorities. Competitive advantages traditionally have been accomplished through economies of scale and product and process technology, but these are no longer sufficient. Competitive advantage through economies of scale is best illustrated by mass production. Furthermore, Henry Fords dictum that customers can have any color as long as its black still convinces many manufacturers that they must choose between standardization at low cost or flexibility at high cost. This has been disproved by Japanese automobile and electronics manufacturers who achieve an optimal balance of product standardization and manufacturing flexibility. The dynamics of todays competitive environment suggest that economies of scale and product or process technology will be a diminishing source of competitive advantage. As a result, manufacturers are turning their attention to building the skills and knowledge of their workforce. World-class manufacturers also realize that competitive advantage can be created only when the manufacturing strategy is well integrated with other functional strategies, which together support the overall corporate strategy. It implies that changes in strategy are necessary to cope with the changes in competitive environment and in the organization itself. Therefore, there is no best manufacturing strategy, and all competitive manufacturers should be ready to shift from one strategy to another as needed. The appropriate strategy depends on a firms strengths and weaknesses. Two manufacturing firms may develop different strategies yet both compete in the same market with success. In addition, sticking with a single competitive strategy (no matter how successful) often turns out to be problematic when the underlying conditions change. Given the dynamic nature of the marketplace, flexibility has already become the most important competitive priority of the 1990s. Flexibility is usually classified broadly as product or service-related (such as volume, product mix, and modification) and process technology-related (such as changeover, scheduling, and innovation). While these sources of flexibility are essential to provide competitive advantage to manufacturers, they tend to be operational or tactical in nature. To acquire a sustainable competitive advantage, management must develop strategic flexibility, which requires long-term commitment and the development of critical resources. Note that no specific manufacturing techniques or improvement programs are included. Instead, the emphasis is on developing skills such as knowledge, capabilities, and a flexible organizational structure. These are the foundation of strategic flexibility that allow future changes to take place as needed; and, best of all, their unique nature means that no one else can copy them easily. Strategic flexibility allows a manufacturing firm to shift from one dominant strategy to another, from one competitive priority to another, but also implies a long-term commitment of resources and a plan of action. Progress, therefore, depends on the current state of the firms resources and capabilities. Generally, strategic flexibility is attained through a three-step process: awareness, understanding, and implementation. Phase 1: Be aware that only strategic flexibility will provide sustainable competitive advantage over the long run. During the last two decades, quality improvement, automation, and advanced manufacturing techniques, to name a few, have often been perceived as a path to competitive advantage. While they may lead to positive outcomes, a number of empirical studies suggest that many firms found them ineffective. Many manufacturers focused too much on the form or mechanics of such programs while overlooking the development of skills and capabilities needed to support the changes. Resistance to change is greater if management fails to see the necessity for changes. Until management fully recognizes the need for long-term competitive advantage, there is no clear incentive to devote the time, effort, and expense to develop strategic flexibility. Phase 2: Understand that the manufacturing functions performance links directly to corporate performance and survival. Understanding the importance of the manufacturing function and its link to corporate performance provides a focal point for management to think more proactively about building capabilities for the future. The poor performance of many major manufacturing firms during the last two decades was no surprise to many researchers. Companies that develop a clear linkage between business and manufacturing strategies tend to be more successful and profitable. This finding has substantiated the argument that manufacturing is indeed a key competitive variable, especially in those industries where customers are increasingly cost and quality conscious. Phase 3: Formulate and implement strategies that center on the development of skills, manufacturing capabilities, and lean organizational structures. The outdated manufacturing strategy based on mass production is not responsive enough to cope with rapidly changing markets and shortened product life cycles. In addition, production jobs have become more challenging and conceptual, as routine and repetitive tasks are performed by automated equipment. The full benefit of technology can be exploited only when workers understand and control a large part of the production process. * Skills and knowledge A productive work force today must be highly skilled and flexible, characteristics that can only be developed through extensive training and experience in a variety of job assignments. Therefore, the workplace must be reorganized to promote continuous learning, which must become a normal part of work life. Evidence suggests that not many manufacturers, particularly in the United States, give high priority and commit sufficient resources to training their front-line workers. Management needs to realize that maintaining and upgrading the skills of their workforce is central to their competitive strategy. Management must focus on the cultivation of multi-skilled workers and stop treating them as replaceable parts or a cost to be controlled. In an attempt to find out why the improvement of flexibility has been so elusive, Upton (1995) observed that most managers put too much faith in machines and technology, and too little faith in the day-to-day management of people (p. 75). The basic theme of a skills development program is to encourage continuous learning throughout the company. Training programs should be developed in ways that are consistent with carefully defined goals and the availability of resources. More important, management should anticipate future skill needs, not just immediate ones. Complex computer-based production systems are likely to prevail. Training people to conceptualize, design, and use new production technology is as crucial as adopting the technology itself. Technology is often perceived as a way to replace workers, it does not mean that human resources are no longer important in achieving competitiveness. Indeed, the only way for manufacturers to maximize their investment in new technology is to upgrade the skill levels of their workforce. As production becomes more challenging and conceptual, because automated equipment performs most of the routine and repetitive tasks, investment in workforce skills development is increasingly vital. * Manufacturing Capabilities Strategic flexibility is not just about a flexible workforce; it requires an augmentation of the workforce with advanced process and information technologies to satisfy customer demands. Advanced process technology, such as flexible manufacturing systems (FMS) and computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM), is crucial for achieving mass customization. An FMS can manufacture assorted products using the same group of machines linked by automated materials handling systems and controlled by a computer system. Automated and preprogrammed workstations are linked for different operations, ensuring that all members of a family of parts can be produced whenever needed. With the installation of FMS, General Electric can deliver a custom-made circuit box in three days instead of three weeks. Likewise, Motorola manufactures custom-designed electronic pagers in less than three hours. Ample evidence suggests that product designs can be significantly simplified if cross-functional design teams are used. A cross-functional design team will help facilitate a modular approach to product design. This approach provides a viable product design strategy to meet changing demand with the advantage of standardization. Modular design is the creation of products from some combination of existing, standardized components; it requires much creativity and communication across the company. Japanese automobile manufacturers have invested heavily in designing parts that can be combined in a number of ways and used interchangeably among several models. Although the modular design will occasionally increase the cost of tools and dies, it facilitates faster introduction of new car models and drastically reduces product development costs. * Organizational Transformation The ultimate success of strategic flexibility requires a redefinition of traditional organizational functions, including links with suppliers and customers. Deep organizational hierarchies, as found in major manufacturing firms, impede cooperation and communication. In recent years, many corporate restructuring efforts have moved to flatten organizational structures to focus on cross-functional integration and employee participation. Corporate communication is then facilitated by a structure that is free from departmental boundaries and limitations. An ultimate goal is to turn the entire production process into modules and to create a dynamic network of skills and capabilities that allows the rapid integration of resources to customize products or services. Mass production of standardized products is no longer a feasible way to meet the challenge of changing market demand and shortened product life cycles. In fact, the usual method of first identifying a fixed competitive priority, such as cost, quality, time, flexibility, or innovation, and then devoting all resources to meet it will no longer provide a sustainable competitive advantage. World-class manufacturers must obtain strategic flexibility to cope with more uncertainties than just changing demand patterns and production volumes. Strategic flexibility is not an improvement program, but is rather the ability to adapt and the readiness for change. The goal of strategic flexibility is to provide more options so that a firm can shift from a current manufacturing strategy to a new one with minimal penalties in cost, time, or performance. True strategic flexibility can be achieved only through the development of skills and manufacturing capabilities, which eventually lead to complete organizational transformation. Source: Lau, R.S.M. “ Strategic flexibility: a new reality for world-class manufacturing”. SAM Advanced Management Journal, 1996(3):P11-15. 译文 ： 战略柔性：一个世界级制造业新的现实 由于 20 世纪 60 年代前期相对稳定的市场结构和较小的竞争压力，柔性概念的发展已经逐渐运用到制造业文化中。 事实上，制造业并没有认为商业战略的制定特别重要。随着竞争力问题的增多，从业者和学者开始意识到制造业的战略在支持企业战略的变化上是至关重要的。因此，许多分析模型和实证研究开始发展起来，以提高制造柔性。据 Suarez, Cusumano 和 Fine（ 1995）所说，绝大部分关于制造柔性的实证研究都服务于下面的目标之一：（ 1）发展柔性的分类；（ 2）调查柔性与绩效的关系；（ 3）涵盖柔性的历史与经济分析；（ 4）发展柔性战略框架。Carlsson (1989)， Sethi (1990)， Hyun and Ahn (1992), 和 Upton (1994)的研究仅仅只是提供更多关于柔性的文学评论的研究作品。 柔性常常与成本、质量和创新一起被认为是竞争优先的标志之一。正如低成本，高品质，已经成为进入市场的要求，柔性很可能成为公司提高竞争能力的关键。虽然不确定性对许多公司来说是一种威胁，但是它也能为那些具有高标准柔性的公司提供机会，无论是以市场为导向还是以资源为导向。这些公司有能力处理不确定性，然而，他们的竞争者却没有市场导向的灵活性。通过减少市场的不确定性或增加对顾客的期望的影响，企业有更多的战略选择和可以采取更主动的方式来竞争。 拥有高度灵活的生产系统的公司具有资源导向柔性，并且可以更好地响应不断变化的市场。 通过结合这两个概念，图 1 显示了含有不确定性的竞争优势相对应的重点企业的应对能力。世界一流的制造企业不仅能够适应迅速变化的环境， 而且他们可以影响市场需求（如通过创建竞争对手不能处理的不确定性或顾客的期望）。无论被动和主动方法都已经被证明是同样重要的 ，需要不同类型的柔性。代替侧重于 柔性的一个特定的层面，世界级的制造企业需要的是战略角度的柔性 能够迅速调整自己的竞争目标， 以 满足新的业务条件。 在一个稳定的竞争环境，比如十年前，一种竞争战略仅仅涉及竞争位置的确定，然后捍卫它，但是， 由于竞争环境发生了迅速 、 难以预测 的变化 ， 新的知识和能力被需要来支持任何战略以创造一个可持续的竞争优势 。因此，在制造业的最终发展目标是实现战略柔性。竞争优势一般是指竞争者创造一个具有独特的优势的生产分配系统，。 实现竞争优势并不意味着公司必须始终做到在各个领域都比竞争者好。 关键是要在大多数领域中做好某一件事。决 定哪个领域作为目标是竞争优先的一个中心问题。 规模经济的竞争优势最好是通过大规模生产说明的。此外，亨利福特的名言“ 客户可以有任何颜色，只要它是黑色的 ”仍然说服了许多制造商，他们必须在标准化的低成本和柔性化的高成本之间做出选择。这一直是被那些实现了产品标准和制造柔性的最佳平衡的日本汽车和电子制造商所否定的。 现今竞争环境的动态变化表明经济规模和产品或技术流程将会是竞争优势削弱的一个因素。因此，制造商正在把注意力转移到建筑工人的技能和知识上。世界级的制造商也认识到，竞争优势只有在生产战略与其他职能战略相协调，以支持整个企业战略时才能建立。它表明战略转变对于适应竞争环境的变化和组织本身 是 必须的。因此，没有最好的制造战略，所有相互竞争的制造商应该根据需要为实现从一种战略转变为另一种战略做好准备。相应的策略取决于企业的长处和弱点。两家制造公司可能会发展出不同的竞争策略，即使双方都在同样的市场成功。相反，坚持用一种战略（无论成功与否）往往会在基础条件改变时产生问题。 由于市场的动态性质，柔性已经成为 20 世纪 90 年代最重要的竞争优先权。柔性经常被归类为与产品或者服务相关的（如数量、产品组合和更改）和工艺技术有关的（如转换， 调度和创新）。 这些资源的灵活性为制造商提供了必不可少竞争优势同时，使他们更倾向于具体操作和战术的性质的研究。为了获得持续的竞争优势，管理部门必须制定战略的柔性，这需要长期的承诺和重要资源开发。请注意，没有特定的制造技术或改善计划均包括在内 。相反的， 重点是发展技能，如知识，能力，以及组织结构的柔性。这些都是适应需要允许未来变化的战略柔性的基础；最重要的是，他们独特的性质意味着没有其他人能轻易地“复制”他们。 战略柔性允许制造公司从一个优势战略转移到另一个战略，从一个竞争力优先到另一个，同时也意味着资源的长期承诺和行动计划。因此，进步取决于企业资源和能力的当前状态。一般来说，战略柔性是通过三个步骤实现的：认识，理解和执行。 第一阶段：认识到战略柔性将会提供长期稳定的竞争优势。在过去的二十年，质量改进，自动化，先进制造技术等等，往往被视为竞争优势的路径。虽然他们可能会导致积极的结果，然而许多实证研究表明，许多公司发现它们失效。许多制造商过度地关注这些项目的形式或结构，而忽略了技能和能力的发展需要适应变化。如果管理层 忽视了变化的必要性，改革的阻力就越大。只有管理层充分认识到长期竞争优势的需要，才能明确的投入时间、人力和费用，发展战略柔性。 第二阶段：理解制造函数的性能直接链接到企业的业绩和生存。理解制造函数的重要性以及它与公司业绩的联系为管理层提供了一个关注点以更加主动地考虑关于未来的建设能力。在过去的 20 年间，许多主要的制造业企业业绩表现不佳并不使一些研究者感到吃惊。那些明确