冬季专项施工相关毕业设计文献翻译

外文文献翻译 2013 年 5 月 26 日 建筑施工技术 1.1 钢筋混凝土 素混凝土是由水泥、水、细骨料、粗骨料（碎石或；卵石）、空气，通常还有其他外加剂等经过凝固硬化而成。将可塑的混凝土拌合物注入到模板内，并将其捣实，然后进行养护，以加速水泥与水的水化反应，最后获得硬化的混凝土。其最终制成品具有较高的抗压强度和较低的抗拉强度。其抗拉强度约为抗压强度的十分之一。因此，截面的受拉区必须配置抗拉钢筋和抗剪钢筋以增加钢筋混凝土构件中较弱 的受拉区的强度。 由于钢筋混凝土截面在均质性上与标准的木材或钢的截面存在着差异，因此，需要对结构设计的基本原理进行修改。将钢筋混凝土这种非均质截面的两种组成部分按一定比例适当布置，可以最好的利用这两种材料。这一要求是可以达到的。因混凝土由配料搅拌成湿拌合物，经过振捣并凝固硬化，可以做成任何一种需要的形状。如果拌制混凝土的各种材料配合比恰当，则混凝土制成品的强度较高，经久耐用，配置钢筋后，可以作为任何结构体系的主要构件。浇筑混凝土所需要的技术取决于即将浇筑的构件类型，诸如：柱、梁、墙、板、基础，大体积混凝土 水坝或者继续延长已浇筑完毕并且已经凝固的混凝土等。对于梁、柱、墙等构件，当模板清理干净后应该在其上涂油，钢筋表面的锈及其他有害物质也应该被清除干净。浇筑基础前，应将坑底土夯实并用水浸湿 6 英寸，以免土壤从新浇的混凝土中吸收水分。一般情况下，除使用混凝土泵浇筑外，混凝土都应在水平方向分层浇筑，并使用插入式或表面式高频电动振捣器捣实。必须记住，过分的振捣将导致骨料离析和混凝土泌浆等现象，因而是有害的。水泥的水化作用发生在有水分存在，而且气温在 50F 以上的条件下。为了保证水泥的水化作用得以进行，必须具备上述条件。 如果干燥过快则会出现表面裂缝，这将有损与混凝土的强度，同时也会影响到水泥水化作用的充分进行。 设计钢筋混凝土构件时显然需要处理大量的参数，诸如宽度、高度等几何尺寸，配筋的面积，钢筋的应变和混凝土的应变，钢筋的应力等等。因此，在选择混凝土截面时需要进行试算并作调整，根据施工现场条件、混凝土原材料的供应情况、业主提出的特殊要求、对建筑和净空高度的要求、所用的设计规范以及建筑物周围环境条件等最后确定截面。钢筋混凝土通常是现场浇注的合成材料，它与在工厂中制造的标准的钢结构梁、柱等不同，因此对于上面所提到的一系列因素 必须予以考虑。对结构体系的各个部位均需选定试算截面并进行验算，以确定该截面的名义强度是否足以承受所作用的计算荷载。由于经常需要进行多次试算，才能求出所需的截面，因此设计时第一次采用的数值将导致一系列的试算与调整工作。 选择混凝土截面时，采用试算与调整过程可以使复核与设计结合在一起。因此，当试算截面选定后，每次设计都是对截面进行复核。手册、图表和微型计算机以及专用程序的使用，使这种设计方法更为简捷有效，而传统的方法则是把钢筋混凝土的复核与单纯的设计分别进行处理。 1.2 土方工程 由于和土木工程中 任何其他工种的施工方法与费用相比较，土方挖运的施工方法与费用的变化都要快得多，因此对于有事业心的人来说，土方工程是一个可以大有作为的领域。在 1935 年，目前采用的利用轮胎式机械设备进行土方挖运的方法大多数还没有出现。那是大部分土方是采用窄轨铁路运输，在这目前来说是很少采用的。当时主要的开挖方式是使用正铲、反铲、拉铲或抓斗等挖土机，尽管这些机械目前仍然在广泛应用，但是它们只不过是目前所采用的许多方法中的一小部分。因此，一个工程师为了使自己在土方挖运设备方面的知识跟得上时代的发展，他应当花费一些时间去研究现代的 机械。一般说来，有关挖土机、装载机和运输机械的唯一可靠而又最新的资料可以从制造厂商处获得。 土方工程或土方挖运工程指的是把地表面过高处的土壤挖去（挖方），并把它倾卸到地表面过低的其他地方（填方）。为了降低土方工程费用，填方量应该等于挖方量，而且挖方地点应该尽可能靠近土方量相等的填方地点，以减少运输量和填方的二次搬运。土方设计这项工作落到了从事道路设计的工程师的身上，因为土方工程的设计比其他任何工作更能决定工程造价是否低廉。根据现有的地图和标高，道路工程师应在设计绘图室中的工作也并不是徒劳的。它将帮助他在最短的时间内获得最好的方案。 费用最低的运土方法是用同一台机械直接挖方取土并且卸土作为填方。这并不是经常可以做到的，但是如果能够做到则是很理想的，因为这样做既快捷又省钱。拉铲挖土机。推土机和正铲挖土机都能做到这点。拉铲挖土机的工作半径最大。推土机所推运的图的数量最多，只是运输距离很短。拉铲挖土机的缺点是只能挖比它本身低的土，不能施加压力挖入压实的土壤内，不能在陡坡上挖土，而且挖。卸都不准确。 正铲挖土机介于推土机和拉铲挖土机的之间，其作用半径大于推土机，但小于拉铲挖土机。正铲挖土机能挖取竖直陡峭的工作面， 这种方式对推土机司机来说是危险的，而对拉铲挖土机则是不可能的。每种机械设备应该进行最适合它的性能的作业。正铲挖土机不能挖比其停机平面低很多的土，而深挖坚实的土壤时，反铲挖土机最适用，但其卸料半径比起装有正铲的同一挖土机的卸料半径则要小很多。 在比较平坦的场地开挖，如果用拉铲或正铲挖土机运输距离太远时，则装有轮胎式的斗式铲运机就是比不可少的。它能在比较平的地面上挖较深的土（但只能挖机械本身下面的土），需要时可以将土运至几百米远，然后卸土并在卸土的过程中把土大致铲平。在挖掘硬土时，人们发现在开挖场地经常用一辆 助推拖拉机（轮式或履带式），对返回挖土的铲运机进行助推这种施工方法是经济的。一旦铲运机装满，助推拖拉机就回到开挖的地点去帮助下一台铲运机。 斗式铲运机通常是功率非常大的机械，许多厂家制造的铲运机铲斗容量为 8 m，满载时可达 10 m。最大的自行式铲运机铲斗容量为 19 立方米（满载时为 25 m），由 430 马力的牵引发动机驱动。 翻斗机可能是使用最为普遍的轮胎式运输设备，因为它们还可以被用来送混凝土或者其他建筑材料。翻斗车的车斗位于大橡胶轮胎车轮前轴的上方，尽管铰接式翻斗车的卸料方向有很多种，但大多数车斗 是向前翻转的。最小的翻斗车的容量大约为 0.5 立方米，而最大的标准型翻斗车的容量大约为 4.5m。特殊型式的翻斗车包括容量为 4 m的自装式翻斗车，和容量约为 0.5 m的铰接式翻斗车。必须记住翻斗车与自卸卡车之间的区别。翻斗车车斗向前倾翻而司机坐在后方卸载，因此有时被称为后卸卡车。 1.3 结构的安全度 规范的主要目的是提供一般性的设计原理和计算方法，以便验算结构的安全度。就目前的趋势而言，安全系数与所使用的材料性质及其组织情况无关，通常把它定义为发生破坏的条件与结构可预料的最不利的工作条件之比值 。这个比值还与结构的破坏概率（危险率）成反比。 破坏不仅仅指结构的整体破坏，而且还指结构不能正常的使用，或者，用更为确切的话来说，把破坏看成是结构已经达到不能继续承担其设计荷载的 “极限状态 ”。通常有两种类型的极限状态，即： 1.强度极限状态，它相当于结构能够达到的最大承载能力。其例子包括结构的局部屈曲和整体不稳定性；某此界面失效，随后结构转变为机构；疲劳破坏；引起结构几何形状显著变化的弹性变形或塑性变形或徐变；结构对交变荷载、火灾和爆炸的敏感性。 2.使用极限状态，它对应着结构 的使用功能和耐久性。器例子包括结构失稳之前的过大变形和位移；早期开裂或过大的裂缝；较大的振动和腐蚀。 根据不同的安全度条件，可以把结构验算所采用的计算方法分成： 1.确定性的方法，在这种方法中，把主要参数看作非随机参数。 2.概率方法，在这种方法中，主要参数被认为是随机参数。 此外，根据安全系数的不同用途，可以把结构的计算方法分为： 1.容许应力法，在这种方法中，把结构承受最大荷载时计算得到的应力与经过按规定的安全系数进行折减后的材料强度作比较。 2.极限状态法，在这种方法 中，结构的工作状态是以其最大强度为依据来衡量的。由理论分析确定的这一最大强度应不小于结构承受计算荷载所算得的强度（极限状态）。计算荷载等于分别乘以荷载系数的活载与恒载之和。 把对应于不乘以荷载系数的活载和恒载的工作（使用）条件的应力与规定值（使用极限状态）相比较。 根据前两种方法和后两种方法的四种可能组合，我们可以得到一些实用的计算方法。通常采用下面两种计算方法： 确定性的方法，这种方法采用容许应力。 概率方法，这种方法采用极限状态。 至少在理论上，概率法的主要优点是可以科学的考虑所有随机安全系数，然 后将这些随机安全系数组合成确定的安全系数。概率法取决于： 1.制作和安装过程中材料强度的随机分布（整个结构的力学性能数值的分散性）； 2.截面和结构几何尺寸的不确定性（由结构制作和安装造成的误差和缺陷而引起的）； 对作用在结构上的活载和恒载的预测的不确定性； 所采用的近似计算方法有关的不精确性（实际应力与计算应力的偏差）。 此外，概率理论意味着可以基于下面几个因素来确定允许的危险率，例如： 1.建筑物的重要性和建筑物破坏造成的危害性； 2.由于建筑物破坏使生活受到威 胁的人数； 3.修复建筑的可能性； 4.建筑物的预期寿命。 所有这些因素均与经济和社会条件有关，例如： 1.建筑物的初始建设费； 2.建筑物使用期限内的折旧费； 3.由于建筑物破坏而造成的物质和材料损失费； 4.在社会上造成的不良影响； 5.精神和心理上的考虑。 The construction technology 1.1 rc Plain concrete is made of cement, water, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate (gravel or; pebble), air, and through hardening of solidification and other admixtures, etc. To plastic concrete mixture into the template, and compacted, and then carries on the maintenance, in order to accelerate the hydration reaction of cement and water, and finally get the hardening of the concrete. The final finished goods has high compressive strength and low tensile strength. Its tensile strength is about one over ten of the compressive strength. The tension zone of the cross section, therefore, you must configure tensile reinforcement and shear reinforcement in order to increase in the reinforced concrete member is weak in tension zone. Due to reinforced concrete cross section on the homogeneity and the standard wood or steel section exist difference, therefore, need to modify the basic principles of structural design. Will be reinforced concrete cross section of the heterogeneity of proportional two part of the appropriate to decorate, can be the best use of these two materials. This requirement can be reached. Due to the concrete by the wet ingredients to form a mixture, after vibration and hardening of solidification, can make any kind of shape you need. If properly mixing of various materials of concrete mix, concrete high strength of manufactured goods, durable, configuration after reinforcement, can be used as major components of any structural system. Technology depends on the pouring of concrete needed component types, such as: column, beam and wall, plate and foundation, or continue to extend the pouring of mass concrete dam is finished and has already frozen concrete, etc. For beam, column, wall and other components, when the template is clean should be on the oil, rust and other harmful substances on the surface of the steel should be cleared away. Before pouring the foundation, the pit soil compaction and water soak 6 inches, so as not to absorb the moisture in soil from newly poured concrete. In general, in addition to the use of concrete pump casting, stratified pouring concrete should be in a horizontal direction, and use a plug-in or surface type high frequency electric vibrator tamping. Must remember that the excessive vibration will cause the aggregate segregation and bleeding of concrete, so it is harmful. Hydration of cement in the presence of moisture, and temperature under the condition of more than 50 F. In order to guarantee the hydration of cement, the above requirements must be met. If drying too fast surface crack will appear, this will damage and the strength of concrete, at the same time also can affect the hydration of cement to adequately. Design of reinforced concrete member clearly need to deal with a large number of parameters, such as width, height, such as geometry size, the area of reinforcement, reinforcement strain and concrete strain, stress of the reinforcing steel bar and so on. Therefore, when choosing concrete section need to be adjusted, trial and according to the conditions of construction site, concrete raw material supply situation, owners put forward special requirements, the design used in the architectural and headroom requirements, specifications and buildings surrounding environmental conditions such as the last section is determined. Usually the synthesis of on-site pouring reinforced concrete materials, with manufacturing in the factory standard steel structure beam and column, so for a series of factors mentioned above must be considered. To all parts of a structure must be selected trial section and calculation, to determine whether the section in the name of the strength to withstand the effects of load calculation. Many times due to the often need to trial, to calculate the required section, so the design for the first time the numerical work will lead to a series of trial and adjustment. Choosing concrete section, using the trial and adjustment process can make review and design together. Therefore, when the trial section is selected, each design is to review section. Manuals, charts, and a microcomputer and special programs, make this kind of design method is more simple and effective, and the traditional way is take the review of the reinforced concrete and simple design, respectively, for processing. 1.2 the earthwork With any other type of work in the civil engineering construction method compared with the cost of earthwork digging of construction methods and the change of the cost is much faster, so for enterprising people, earthwork is an area where can go a long way. In 1935, at present the use of wheeled machinery equipment earthwork digging method most havent shipped to. Thats most of the earth is a narrow gauge railway transport, is rarely used in the present. When main excavation method is to use shovels, or grab bucket excavator backhoe, a shovel, although these machinery is still widely used, but they just is a small part of many methods. Therefore, an engineer in order to make oneself in the earthwork digging equipment knowledge keep up with the development of The Times, he should spend some time to research modern machinery. Generally speaking, the excavator, loader, and the only reliable transport machinery and latest information can be obtained from manufacturer. Earthwork or earthwork digging project refers to the surface soil digging too high to (cut), and dump it into other parts of the surface is too low (fill). To reduce earthwork costs, fill the amount should be equal to the amount of excavation, and excavation site should be as close to equal fill earthwork quantity, in order to reduce traffic and fill the secondary handling. Earthwork design of this work falls to engage in road design engineer, because the earthwork design more than any other work to determine whether the project cost is low. According to existing maps and elevation, the road engineers should work in design drawing room is not in vain. It will help him in the shortest possible time to obtain the best solution. Earth at the lowest cost method is to use the same mechanical direct excavation soil and soil as embankment. It is not always possible, but if you can do is ideal, because it is fast and save money to do so. Dragline. Bulldozers and face shovel can do this. The largest radius of dragline work. Bulldozers pushed by the largest number of figure, just a short distance. Dragline disadvantage is that the only dig soil is lower than itself, not dig into the compaction of soil pressure, no digging in steep slope, and dig. Discharge is not accurate. Face shovel between the bulldozers and dragline, the radius of action outweigh the bulldozer, but less than dragline. Face shovel to dig up the vertical steep coal face, This way for the bulldozer driver is dangerous, and the dragline is impossible. Each mechanical equipment should be the most suitable for the performance of the work. Face shovel couldnt dig soil, much lower than its downtime plane and deep digging the solid soil, a backhoe is most applicable, but its discharge radius than are equipped with the same excavator shovel discharge radius is much smaller. In relatively flat ground excavation, if use the spade or shovel the transport distance too far, is equipped with wheel bucket LHD is than. It can dig deeper in relatively flat on the ground of soil (soil digging under the machinery itself but only), when need soil can be shipped to a few hundred metres away, and then unloaded soil and the soil in the process of unloading soil roughly leveled. When mining hard soil, people found in the excavation site often use a booster tractor (wheeled or tracked), to boost returns the scraper of digging this construction method is economical. Once scraper with, booster tractor are returned to the excavation of the site with the help of a scraper. Bucket LHD are usually very large power machinery, many manufacturers of scraper bucket capacity of 8 m after, when loaded with up to 10 m after. The biggest motor scraper bucket capacity of 19 cubic meters (full load of 25 m after), driven by a 430 - horsepower tractor engine. Dumper is probably the most commonly used wheeled transport equipment, because they can also be used for concrete or other building materials. Skip car bucket located in rubber tyre wheel on the top of the front axle, while articulated dump truck unloading direction has a lot of kinds, but most of the car is forward flip bucket. The smallest capacity of dump truck is about 0.5 cubic meters, and the largest standard dump truck has a capacity of about 4.5 m after. A special type of dump truck including capacity for diy 4 m after the dump truck, and capacity of about 0.5 m after articulated dump truck. The difference between must remember skip and dump trucks. Car dumper for tilting forward the driver sitting in the rear unload, therefore sometimes called after unloading the truck. 1.3 the structure of the degree of safety The main purpose of the specification is to provide general design principle and calculation method, so that the calculation of the structure safety. In terms of current trends, safety coefficient has nothing to do with the properties of materials and its status in the organization, usually defined as it destroyed the most unfavorable conditions and structure can be expected in the ratio of working conditions. This ratio is also working with the destruction of the structure is inversely proportional to the probability (risk). Damage not only refers to the overall destruction of structures, but also refers to the structure cannot normal use, or, in more precise terms, the damage as structure has reached cannot continue to undertake the design load of limit state. Usually there are two types of limit state, namely: 1. The strength limit state, which is equivalent to the maximum bearing capacity of structure can be achieved. Examples include the structure of the local and overall buckling instability; This interface failure, then structure into institutions; Fatigue damage; Elastic deformation of the change of the structure geometry significantly or plastic deformation or creep; Structure on the sensitivity of the alternating load, fire and explosion. 2. Use limit state, which corresponds to the structure of the use function and durability. Examples include structure instability before too large deformation and displacement; Too much early cracking or fracture; The larger vibration and corrosion. Under conditions of different degree of safety, can put the structure checking calculation methods are divided into: (1) deterministic methods, in this method, the main parameters as nonrandom parameters. Probability method, in this method, the main parameters are considered to be random parameters. In addition, according to the different USES of factor of safety, can put the calculation method of the structure can be divided into: 1. The allowable stress method, in this method, the structure stress and the maximum load calculation are in accordance with the provisions of safety coefficient after the reduction of strength of materials. 2. The limit state method, in this method, the structure of the working condition is measured by its biggest strength as the basis. By theoretical analysis to determine the maximum intensity should not be less than structure calculation under load by calculate the intensity of the (limit). Computational load is equal to the multiplied by the coefficient of load live load and dead load separately. The sum of The corresponding to not multiplied by the coefficient of load live load and dead load working conditions (using) the stress compared with the specified value (using limit state). According to the former two methods