2016年最新电大开放教育大学西方经济学复习重点整理资料参考

大学西方经济学复习重点整理第一章1、经济学探讨的核心问题财富2、价值理论财富的经济学术语价值著名的价值理论劳动价值论（亚当斯密和马克思的观点）效用价值论（马歇尔的观点）信息价值论（阿罗肯尼斯）一、稀缺性西方经济学认为稀缺性是人类社会的一个既存事实，是人类永远无法改变的一个事实，其根源在于人类需求的无限性。1、资源的稀缺性（SCARCITY）（1）稀缺性的含义稀少、不足、有限。（2）资源的稀缺性人类用于生产财富的资源永远是有限的2、稀缺性相对的条件人类无限的需求3、资源的配置资源的配置就是用最少的资源最大限度地生产出人类所需要的财富（产品和服务）资源配置问题包括用什么生产生产什么生产多少为谁生产资源配置问题存在于社会的经济过程，即生产、消费、交换、分配二、西方经济学的原则和假设1、价值中立原则对经济学研究的问题只做实事判断，不做价值判断。2、“经济人”的假设（1）“经济人”是对人的本性的一种假设人在本性上是自私的；人在本性上是自利的；人在本性上是追求快乐的；人的行为是经济理性的结果，即所有决策都服从于利益最大化原则。西方经济学的基本术语1、模型（MODEL）2、均衡（EQUILIBRIUM）3、边际（MARGIN）4、厂商（FIRM）5、技术6、机会成本7、生产要素8、福利三、西方经济学发展史简介西方经济学产生的文化根基是古希腊哲学。1、古典政治经济学（CLASSICALPOLITICALECONOMICS）亚当斯密和他所处的时代。亚当斯密在的观点劳动价值论和市场理论土地和劳动（劳动创造价值）分工和效率（节省人力和物力）剩余产品和交换贸易和市场（市场机制，看不见的手）2、政治经济学（POLITICALECONOMICS）马克思主要研究商品、货币、资本和剩余价值。西方经济学的发展1、新古典经济学马歇尔，主要研究效用与价值。新古典经济学也叫做边际主义经济学（微观经济学）2、凯恩斯主义经济学主要研究国家在市场运行中的作用凯恩斯的学说也被称为宏观经济学3、新自由主义经济学（1）新自由主义经济学包括许多流派，其中最有影响的是制度经济学派。（2）制度经济学的代表人物是科斯。四、历史上最有影响的经济学家1、亚当斯密，土地和劳动，分工和效率（节省人力和物力），价值理论和市场理论2、马克思，劳动和资本，价值和剩余价值3、马歇尔，效用和价值，市场是完美的4、凯恩斯，市场是不完美的，国家调控5、科斯，制度可以保障市场的完美第二章第一节需求与需求函数一、需求的定义1、定义需求是指在某种价格水平下消费者愿意并且能够购买的商品或劳务的数量。2、需求的关键性要素欲望、支付能力、数量3、表示需求量的符号QD二、需求函数1、需求函数表示为QF（X）（Q代表需求量，X代表影响需求的因素）2、需求与价格的函数假定除了价格，其他因素都不变，则需求函数为QF（P）（P表示商品的价格）三、需求曲线书上给出了一个假定的需求表，根据表中所给出的数据，画出下列需求曲线四、需求定理商品的需求量与商品的价格呈反方向变动，即商品价格上升时，商品的需求量减少，商品价格下降时，商品的需求量增加。五、需求的变动（需求曲线的移动）西方经济学强调需求量的变化和需求（曲线）的变化之间的差别需求的变动是考察除了商品价格之外，影响需求变化的因素，这些因素是收入和相关商品价格1、几个相关概念正常品和低档品替代品和互补品（课本P22）2、需求的曲线移动需求曲线移动的两种情况向左或向右移动。见如下案例第一种情况需求曲线向右移动，即由D0向D1移动，一般条件是当收入增加时，当替代品的价格上升时，当互补品的价格下降时。第二种情况需求曲线向左移动即由D0向D2移动，一般条件是当收入减少时，当替代品的价格下降时，当互补品的价格上升时，第二节供给与供给函数一、供给的定义生产者在某种价格水平下愿意并能够提供给市场销售的商品或劳务的数量。要素意愿、生产能力二、供给函数供给函数表示为QF（X），X可能为价格、质量、成本、技术、制度、未来预期价格、企业的数量三、供给曲线四、供给定理商品的供给量与商品的价格呈同方向变动，即商品价格上升时，商品的供给量增加，商品价格下降时，商品的供给量减少。五、供给的变动1、供给量的变动和供给的变动2、生产性相关商品的概念（1）生产性替代品在生产过程中，可以替代这种商品生产的另一种商品，如某汽车生产厂，卡车是轿车的生产性替代品。生产性替代品价格（PS）上升时，这种商品的供给量减少,生产性互补品的价格（PC）上升时，这种商品的供给量增加（2）生产性互补品在生产中，必须和这种商品一起生产的另外一种商品，如某屠宰场在生产牛肉的同时也生产了牛皮，牛肉和牛皮是生产性互补品。3、供给曲线移动的情况第一种情况供给曲线向右移动，即由S0向S1移动，条件是当C，PS，PC时，即当成本下降，生产性替代品的价格下降，生产性互补品价格上升时，（图1）第二种情况供给曲线向左移动，即由S0向S2移动，条件是当C，PS，PC时，即当成本上升，生产性替代品的价格上升，生产性互补品的价格下降时，（图2）图1图2第三节均衡价格和供求定理一、均衡价格的定义需求曲线与供给曲线的交点所决定的价格叫做均衡价格，这一点所决定的产量叫做均衡产量。如图1图1图2二、均衡价格的形成（如上图2）三、均衡价格模型和市场机制1、均衡价格模型,如图所示2、市场机制当厂商为追求利润提高价格时，只要PPE，就会产生市场剩余，价格随之下降，直到PE，相反，如果PAP、总收益递增第二阶段收益递减阶段（）当L从L2增加到L3时，MPMC时，厂商将继续追加投入，以增加总收益，直到MRMC时，厂商才会停止追加投入。图示利润总收益总成本如图所示总收益曲线的切线和总成本曲线的切线斜率相等时，利润最大，即MRMC时，利润最大化。第五章市场结构与厂商均衡第一节市场结构理论一、划分市场类型的标准1、四指标标准厂商数量、产品的相似性、信息是否充分、进入或退出行业是否容易2、二指标标准厂商数量和对产品价格的影响程度3、产业集中度标准二、市场结构的类型根据四个主要指标，市场结构可分为四类1、完全竞争市场2、完全垄断市场3、垄断竞争市场4、寡头垄断市场根据厂商数量和对产品价格的影响程度，市场结构被分为卖方市场和买方市场完全竞争和垄断竞争是买方市场，完全垄断和寡头垄断是卖方市场根据产业集中度指标，市场分为四类厂商在行业中所占的资产或销售额的比率，通常用CRN来表示，N表示行业内厂商的数量如CR460表示行业内最大的4个厂商所占据的市场份额为60。贝恩的产业和市场类型的划分第二节完全竞争市场一、完全竞争市场的特征1、有众多的生产者和消费者，任何单一的生产者和消费者都不能改变市场价格2、厂商生产的产品是同质的，无差别的3、厂商可以自由地进入或退出行业4、买卖双方有完全的市场信息二、完全竞争条件下厂商的短期均衡1、完全竞争条件下厂商面对的需求曲线和边际收益曲线（图1）2、完全竞争条件下厂商短期均衡的条件MCMRARP（图2）图1图23、完全竞争市场厂商短期均衡的三种情况（1）厂商获得超额利润（如图1）当需求曲线为D1时，厂商按照MCMR决定产量Q1，此时厂商获得的经济利润（ARAC）Q1为正，即超额利润（2）厂商获得正常利润（如图1）当需求曲线为D2时，厂商按照MCMR决定产量Q2，此时厂商获得的经济利润（ARAC）Q2为0，即获得正常利润。图1（3）、厂商获得亏损（如图1）当需求曲线为D3时，厂商按照MCMR决定产量Q3，此时厂商获得的经济利润（ARAC）Q3为负，厂商有亏损。三、完全竞争条件下厂商的长期均衡1、厂商在长期中的调整厂商在长期中会逐步扩大生产规模，直到收益最大，厂商按照MCMR安排产量（1）在短期S1内，有亏损，厂商继续扩大规模到S2（2）在短期S2内，有盈利，厂商继续扩大规模到S3，与此同时，其他厂商进入该行业，供给增加，促使价格下降到P，当利润为零时，厂商停止扩大规模（3）在短期S3，价格为P时，有亏损，厂商退出该行业或减小规模。如下图2、长期均衡的条件LMCLMRLARLATCP第三节完全垄断市场一、完全垄断市场的特征和成因1、完全垄断市场的特征只有一个厂商向市场提供某一种特殊的商品，厂商可以决定市场的价格和产量。垄断（MONOPOLY）的含义就是指某一厂商成为某一产品的唯一的供给者。2、完全垄断市场特征形成的原因（1）厂商控制了原料的来源，使其他厂商生产同类产品不可能（2）厂商拥有规模经济，大规模的投入使其他厂商难以进入（3）厂商拥有技术专利二、完全垄断厂商的需求曲线和收益曲线1、需求曲线和平均收益曲线2、边际收益曲线三、垄断厂商的短期均衡最大利润TRTC的最大值，此时应满足条件MCMR,即TC和TR的切线斜率相等如右图1、获得超额利润时的短期均衡条件MRMC,PAC2、获得正常利润时的短期均衡条件MRMC,PAC，AC与D相切于E3、获得亏损时的短期均衡条件MRMC,PAC，AC与D不相交图1图2图3四、垄断厂商的长期均衡垄断厂商有条件在长期获得超额利润，均衡条件LMRLMC,PLAC第四节垄断竞争市场一、垄断竞争市场的特征1、众多厂商生产有差别的同类产品，产品可以相互替代，产品差别越大，厂商的垄断程度越高。2、资源的流动比较自由，厂商可以比较容易地进入或退出某一行业或生产集团3、每个厂商都预期自己的行为（如降价）不会对其他厂商产生影响，但实际上有影响。4、每个厂商的需求曲线和成本曲线都具有相同的形状。二、垄断竞争市场厂商的短期均衡1、垄断竞争市场厂商的需求曲线垄断竞争厂商有两条需求曲线D为厂商预期的需求曲线，富有弹性D为厂商实际的需求曲线2、垄断竞争市场的需求曲线与厂商决策垄断竞争厂商依据预期的需求曲线决策，如降价P1P2，厂商认为其他厂商不会注意，其销售量由Q1增加到Q2，但实际上，其他厂商也会降价，结果实际的销售量只能达到Q3，最后，市场上达到均衡的的价格和销量是由两条曲线的交点为E决定的。3、垄断竞争市场厂商的短期均衡（1）均衡的条件MRMC（2）均衡的过程第一步厂商按照市场价格P0安排产量Q0，但这不是利润最大化的产量第二步厂商依据MRMC安排产量Q1，预期价格P1，但实际上只能达到Q2，市场均衡移动到B点。第三步B点所决定的产量Q2未能满足MRMC，不是利润最大化的产量，此时厂商的预期需求曲线D0也移动到D1，产生MR1第四步厂商继续依据MRMC安排产量Q3，预期价格P3，但实际上只能达到Q4，市场均衡点移到C点，未能满足MRMC第五步厂商继续按照MRMC调整产量，直到E点所决定的产量Q0能满足MRMC，即利润最大化的产量4、垄断竞争厂商短期均衡的三种情况有超额利润有正常利润有亏损三、垄断竞争市场厂商的长期均衡垄断竞争市场厂商在长期只能获得正常利润，均衡条件MRMC第五节寡头垄断市场一、寡头垄断市场特征1、行业中只有为数不多的厂商，厂商可以在相当的程度上控制市场的价格。2、厂商生产有差别的同类产品。3、厂商不能轻易地进入或退出行业4、厂商的利润主要取决于与其他厂商的相互关系。二、寡头垄断市场的进入壁垒1、规模经济如果厂商的长期平均成本随着产量的增加而下降，那么该行业就存在着规模经济。规模经济限制了其他厂商的进入，规模经济越强，行业中厂商的数量就越少。2、关键要素所有权对原材料或生产技术、工艺的垄断也能造成其他厂商难以进入。3、政府设置的壁垒为了保护和鼓励创新，政府出台一些准入政策、资格认证、专利保护等措施，同时设置国际贸易壁垒，这些都可以限制新厂商进入。三、寡头垄断市场厂商均衡的解释模型1、基于信息经济学的博弈模型（1）信息经济学主要观点信息经济学产生于20世纪60年代的美国，代表人物是阿罗肯尼斯、波拉特等，主要观点是认为市场信息总是不完全的、不充分的，信息是有价值的，获取信息是需要支付成本的。（2）、寡头垄断市场信息不对称信息不对称的含义交易双方拥有的信息不等量、不对等，一方拥有的信息少于另一方。经济生活或市场中，信息不对称是一个普遍的事实（3）信息不对称条件下的经济行为或决策经济行为或决策都是在信息不对称的条件下进行的，这种决策类似于博弈。（4）、博弈论和囚徒困境博弈论创始人纳什（JOHNFORBESNASHJR，1928613），数学家，1948年22岁时发表论文（ATHEORYOFGAMES），获得普林斯顿大学博士学位，但当时未引起重视。博弈论的主要观点信息不对称条件下，系统和个人的理性决策未必能达到最优。而信息充分时，则可能达到系统最优和个人最优。博弈论首次从理论上证明，经济体系中各个行为者可以共赢，也叫做共赢理论囚徒困境信息不对称条件下决策（博弈）的一种示例。博弈的要素规则决定哪些行为是允许的策略为获得最大收益收益各玩家策略相互作用产生的结果囚徒困境的要素（假定条件）规则囚徒A和囚徒B因涉嫌犯有相同的罪行，他们被分别关押，彼此不能互通信息，A和B都被告知，如果主动坦白罪行，则可以获得从轻处罚，如果被同伙揭发，则要从重处罚。策略A和B都预计同伙的行为，做出最有利于自己的决定结果博弈的均衡1、囚徒困境模型2、寡头垄断市场厂商均衡的博弈模型名词占优策略无论其他厂商采用何种策略，该策略都是本厂商的最优策略。纳什均衡在竞争厂商所选择策略给定的情况下，每一厂商选择其最优策略，从而达到均衡。请您删除一下内容，O_O谢谢2016年中央电大期末复习考试小抄大全，电大期末考试必备小抄，电大考试必过小抄BASKETBALLCANMAKEATRUECLAIMTOBEINGTHEONLYMAJORSPORTTHATISANAMERICANINVENTIONFROMHIGHSCHOOLTOTHEPROFESSIONALLEVEL,BASKETBALLATTRACTSALARGEFOLLOWINGFORLIVEGAMESASWELLASTELEVISIONCOVERAGEOFEVENTSLIKETHENATIONALCOLLEGIATEATHLETICASSOCIATIONNCAAANNUALTOURNAMENTANDTHENATIONALBASKETBALLASSOCIATIONNBAANDWOMENSNATIONALBASKETBALLASSOCIATIONWNBAPLAYOFFSANDITHASALSOMADEAMERICANHEROESOUTOFITSPLAYERANDCOACHLEGENDSLIKEMICHAELJORDAN,LARRYBIRD,EARVIN“MAGIC“JOHNSON,SHERYLSWOOPES,ANDOTHERGREATPLAYERSATTHEHEARTOFTHEGAMEISTHEPLAYINGSPACEANDTHEEQUIPMENTTHESPACEISARECTANGULAR,INDOORCOURTTHEPRINCIPALPIECESOFEQUIPMENTARETHETWOELEVATEDBASKETS,ONEATEACHENDINTHELONGDIRECTIONOFTHECOURT,ANDTHEBASKETBALLITSELFTHEBALLISSPHERICALINSHAPEANDISINFLATEDBASKETBALLSRANGEINSIZEFROM28530IN7276CMINCIRCUMFERENCE,ANDINWEIGHTFROM1822OZ510624GFORPLAYERSBELOWTHEHIGHSCHOOLLEVEL,ASMALLERBALLISUSED,BUTTHEBALLINMENSGAMESMEASURES29530IN7576CMINCIRCUMFERENCE,ANDAWOMENSBALLIS28529IN7274CMINCIRCUMFERENCETHECOVERINGOFTHEBALLISLEATHER,RUBBER,COMPOSITION,ORSYNTHETIC,ALTHOUGHLEATHERCOVERSONLYAREDICTATEDBYRULESFORCOLLEGEPLAY,UNLESSTHETEAMSAGREEOTHERWISEORANGEISTHEREGULATIONCOLORATALLLEVELSOFPLAY,THEHOMETEAMPROVIDESTHEBALLINFLATIONOFTHEBALLISBASEDONTHEHEIGHTOFTHEBALLSBOUNCEINSIDETHECOVERINGORCASING,ARUBBERBLADDERHOLDSAIRTHEBALLMUSTBEINFLATEDTOAPRESSURESUFFICIENTTOMAKEITREBOUNDTOAHEIGHTMEASUREDTOTHETOPOFTHEBALLOF4954IN1214MWHENITISDROPPEDONASOLIDWOODENFLOORFROMASTARTINGHEIGHTOF6FT180MMEASUREDFROMTHEBOTTOMOFTHEBALLTHEFACTORYMUSTTESTTHEBALLS,ANDTHEAIRPRESSURETHATMAKESTHEBALLLEGALINKEEPINGWITHTHEBOUNCETESTISSTAMPEDONTHEBALLDURINGTHEINTENSITYOFHIGHSCHOOLANDCOLLEGETOURNEYSANDTHEPROFESSIONALPLAYOFFS,THISINFLATEDSPHERECOMMANDSCONSIDERABLEATTENTIONBASKETBALLISONEOFFEWSPORTSWITHAKNOWNDATEOFBIRTHONDECEMBER1,1891,INSPRINGFIELD,MASSACHUSETTS,JAMESNAISMITHHUNGTWOHALFBUSHELPEACHBASKETSATTHEOPPOSITEENDSOFAGYMNASIUMANDOUTLINED13RULESBASEDONFIVEPRINCIPLESTOHISSTUDENTSATTHEINTERNATIONALTRAININGSCHOOLOFTHEYOUNGMENSCHRISTIANASSOCIATIONYMCA,WHICHLATERBECAMESPRINGFIELDCOLLEGENAISMITH18611939WASAPHYSICALEDUCATIONTEACHERWHOWASSEEKINGATEAMSPORTWITHLIMITEDPHYSICALCONTACTBUTALOTOFRUNNING,JUMPING,SHOOTING,ANDTHEHANDEYECOORDINATIONREQUIREDINHANDLINGABALLTHEPEACHBASKETSHEHUNGASGOALSGAVETHESPORTTHENAMEOFBASKETBALLHISSTUDENTSWEREEXCITEDABOUTTHEGAME,ANDCHRISTMASVACATIONGAVETHEMTHECHANCETOTELLTHEIRFRIENDSANDPEOPLEATTHEIRLOCALYMCASABOUTTHEGAMETHEASSOCIATIONLEADERSWROTETONAISMITHASKINGFORCOPIESOFTHERULES,ANDTHEYWEREPUBLISHEDINTHETRIANGLE,THESCHOOLNEWSPAPER,ONJANUARY15,1892NAISMITHSFIVEBASICPRINCIPLESCENTERONTHEBALL,WHICHWASDESCRIBEDAS“LARGE,LIGHT,ANDHANDLEDWITHTHEHANDS“PLAYERSCOULDNOTMOVETHEBALLBYRUNNINGALONE,ANDNONEOFTHEPLAYERSWASRESTRICTEDAGAINSTHANDLINGTHEBALLTHEPLAYINGAREAWASALSOOPENTOALLPLAYERS,BUTTHEREWASTOBENOPHYSICALCONTACTBETWEENPLAYERSTHEBALLWASTHEOBJECTIVETOSCORE,THEBALLHADTOBESHOTTHROUGHAHORIZONTAL,ELEVATEDGOALTHETEAMWITHTHEMOSTPOINTSATTHEENDOFANALLOTTEDTIMEPERIODWINSEARLYINTHEHISTORYOFBASKETBALL,THELOCALYMCASPROVIDEDTHEGYMNASIUMS,ANDMEMBERSHIPINTHEORGANIZATIONGREWRAPIDLYTHESIZEOFTHELOCALGYMDICTATEDTHENUMBEROFPLAYERSSMALLERGYMSUSEDFIVEPLAYERSONASIDE,ANDTHELARGERGYMSALLOWEDSEVENTONINETHETEAMSIZEBECAMEGENERALLYESTABLISHEDASFIVEIN1895,AND,IN1897,THISWASMADEFORMALINTHERULESTHEYMCALOSTINTERESTINSUPPORTINGTHEGAMEBECAUSE1020BASKETBALLPLAYERSMONOPOLIZEDAGYMNASIUMPREVIOUSLYUSEDBYMANYMOREINAVARIETYOFACTIVITIESYMCAMEMBERSHIPDROPPED,ANDBASKETBALLENTHUSIASTSPLAYEDINLOCALHALLSTHISLEDTOTHEBUILDINGOFBASKETBALLGYMNASIUMSATSCHOOLSANDCOLLEGESANDALSOTOTHEFORMATIONOFPROFESSIONALLEAGUESALTHOUGHBASKETBALLWASBORNINTHEUNITEDSTATES,FIVEOFNAISMITHSORIGINALPLAYERSWERECANADIANS,ANDTHEGAMESPREADTOCANADAIMMEDIATELYITWASPLAYEDINFRANCEBY1893ENGLANDIN1894AUSTRALIA,CHINA,ANDINDIABETWEEN1895AND1900ANDJAPANIN1900FROM1891THROUGH1893,ASOCCERBALLWASUSEDTOPLAYBASKETBALLTHEFIRSTBASKETBALLWASMANUFACTUREDIN1894ITWAS32IN81CMINCIRCUMFERENCE,ORABOUT4IN10CMLARGERTHANASOCCERBALLTHEDEDICATEDBASKETBALLWASMADEOFLACEDLEATHERANDWEIGHEDLESSTHAN20OZ567GTHEFIRSTMOLDEDBALLTHATELIMINATEDTHENEEDFORLACESWASINTRODUCEDIN1948ITSCONSTRUCTIONANDSIZEOF30IN76CMWERERULEDOFFICIALIN1949THERULESETTERSCAMEFROMSEVERALGROUPSEARLYINTHE1900SCOLLEGESANDUNIVERSITIESESTABLISHEDTHEIRRULESCOMMITTEESIN1905,THEYMCAANDTHEAMATEURATHLETICUNIONAAUCREATEDASETOFRULESJOINTLY,STATEMILITIAGROUPSABIDEDBYASHAREDSETOFRULES,ANDTHEREWERETWOPROFESSIONALSETSOFRULESAJOINTRULESCOMMITTEEFORCOLLEGES,THEAAU,ANDTHEYMCAWASCREATEDIN1915,AND,UNDERTHENAMETHENATIONALBASKE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