英语国家概况-英国

精选文档精选文档..精选文档.PartOne:TheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIrelandChapter1LandandPeopleChapter2TheOriginsofaNation(500BC~AD1066)Chapter3TheShapeoftheNation(1066~1381)Chapter4TransitiontotheModernAge(1455~1688)Chapter5TheRiseandFalloftheBritishEmpire(1688~1990)Chapter6TheEconomyChapter7GovernmentandAdministrationChapter8JusticetheLawChapter9SocialAffairsChapter10CulturalAffairsChapter1Land,PeopleandLanguage1DifferentNamesforBritainanditsPartsTheofficialnameofBritainistheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland.ThegeographicalnamesaretheBritishIsles,GreatBritainandEngland.PeoplejustsayBritain,theUnitedKingdomorsimplyU.K.People

Englandisthelargestandmostpopulous,almostaquarterofthepeoplelivesinEngland’sprosperousandfertilesoutheast,withover7millioninthecapital.ThemajorityofthepopulationaredescendantsoftheAnglo-Saxons,aGermanicpeoplefromEuropewhowenttoEnglandbetweenthe5thand7thcenturies.ThesepeoplesettledinEnglandanddrovethenativeCelticpeopletothemountainousareasofWalesand精选文档精选文档..精选文档.Scotland.Theirlanguagebecametheofficiallanguageofthecountry.MostpeopleinWalesandScotlandaredescendantsoftheCelticpeoplewhoweretheearliestknowninhabitantsofBritain.TheIrishpeoplewerealsoofCelticorigin.

Aboutahundredyearsago,asaresultofitsimperialistexpansion,Britainruledanempirethathadonefourthoftheworld’speopleandaquarteroftheworld’slandarea.GeographicalFeaturesThereare3politicaldivisionsontheislandofGreatBritain:England,ScotlandandWales.TheislandofIrelandisdividedinto2parts:NorthernIrelandandtheRepublicofBritainhas,forcenturies,beenslowlytiltingwiththeNorth-WestslowlyrisingandtheSouth-Eastslowlysinking.ThenorthandwestofBritainaremainlyhighlands;theeastandsouth-eastaremostlylowlands.Thereare3naturalzonesofScotland:theHighlandsinthenorth,thecentralLowlands,andthesouthernUplands.ThehighestmountaininBritainisBenNevis(1,343m),locatedinScotland.ThelongestriverofBritain,theSevernRiver,whichis354kmslong,originatesinmid-WalesandflowsthroughwesternEnglandtotheBristolChannel.ThelargestlakeinU.K,LoughNeagh,islocatedinNorthernIreland.ClimateTheaveragetemperatureinJanuaryisaround0degreeandseldomfallsbelow-10degree,eveninthenorthern精选文档精选文档..精选文档.Scotland.FactorswhichinfluencetheclimateinBritainare:1Thesurroundingwaterstendtobalancetheseasonaldifferencesbyheatingupthelandinwinterandcoolingitoffinsummer.2Theprevailingsouth-westwindsortheWesterliesblowoverthecountryalltheyearroundbringingwarmandwetairinwinterandkeepingthetemperaturesmoderate.3TheNorthAtlanticDrift,whichiswarmcurrent,passesthewesterncoastoftheBritishIslesandwarmsthem.

AsaresultoftherainfalldistributioninBritainthereisawatersurplusinthenorthandwest,andawaterdeficitinthesouthandtheeast.LanguageEnglishisamemberoftheIndo-Europeanfamilyoflanguage(印欧语系).OldEnglishwasstronglyinfluencedbyoldNorse(挪威语)spokenbytheVikings（北欧海盗）andwascloselyrelatedtotheGermanandDutchlanguage.TheintroductionofChristianityaddedthefirstwaveofLatinandGreekwordstothelanguage.TheOldEnglishperiodendedwiththeNormanConquest,whenthelanguagewasinfluenced,toanevenextent,bytheFrench-speakingNormans.WilliamtheConqueror,theDukeofNormandy,invadedandconqueredEnglandandtheAnglo-Saxonsin1066.Intheearlyofthisperiod,French,spokenbytheNormans,replacedEnglishastheofficiallanguageinEngland,whileEnglishwasonlyusedbythelowclass.NumerousFrenchwordscameintotheEnglishvocabulary.ThisperiodwastheMiddleEnglish.Fromthelate15thcenturyonward,theEnglishlanguagechangedfurtherintowhatisnowdescribed精选文档精选文档..精选文档.asModernEnglish.TheprintingpresswasintroducedtoEnglandin1476byWilliamCaxton,whobroughtstandardizationtoEnglish.ThedialectofLondonbecamethestandard.Spellingandgrammarbecamefixed.ThefirstEnglishdictionarywaspublishedin1604.SamuelJohnson’sdictionary,publishedin1755,wasinfluentialinestablishingastandardformofspelling.StandardEnglishisbasedonthespeechoftheupperclassofthesouthernEngland,adoptedasabroadcastingstandardintheBritishmedia.ItisalsocalledQueen’sEnglishorBBCEnglish.Atpresent,nearlyaquarteroftheworld’spopulationuseEnglish.Ithasbecomeauniversallinguafranca（国际通用语）TodayaboutaquarteroftheWelshpopulationstillspeakWelshastheirfirstlanguageandaboutonepercentspeakonlyWelsh.WelshisanancientCelticlanguage.ItwasgivenequalitywithEnglishforallofficialuseinWalesin1965.Chapter2TheOriginsofaNation(500BC~AD1066)TheEarlySettlers(5000BC-55BC)1TheIberiansAtabout3000BCduringNewStoneAge,IberianscametoBritainfromIberianPeninsula,nowSpain.2TheBeakerFolk3TheCeltsRomanBritain(55BC-AD410)精选文档精选文档..精选文档.Britishrecordedhistorybeginsintheyear55BC,whenJuliusCaesarandhisRomantroopsinvadedtheisland.In410,GermanicbarbariansattackedRome,forcingallRomantroopstoleaveBritaininordertodefendtheirownnation,andthusendingtheRomanoccupationoftheisland.TheAnglo-Saxons(446-871)SoonaftertheRomanleft,groupsofGermanicwarriors,includingtheAngles,theSaxonsandtheJutesfromwhatistodayDenmarkandNorthernGermany,landedinBritain.TheydrovetheBritonstothemountains,andthosedidnotfleeremainedasslavestothenewinvaders.In579St.AugustinebecamethefirstArchbishopofCanterbury;hewasremarkablysuccessfulinconvertingthekingandthenobility.Anglo-SaxonslaidthefoundationoftheEnglishstate,dividedthecountryintoshiresanddevisedthenarrow-strip,three-fieldfarmingsystem,whichcontinueduntiltheagriculturerevolutioninthe18thcentury.AndtheycreatedtheWitan(councilormeetingofthewisemen),toadvisetheking,thebasisofthePrivyCouncilwhichstillexiststoday.TheVikingandDanishInvasionsInthe8thcentury,theNorwegianVikingsandtheDanesfromDenmarkattackedtheEnglishcoast.IntheprocessofresistingtheVikings,the7Anglo-SaxonkingdomsinEnglandgraduallybecameunitedunderAlfredtheGreat,kingofWessex(871-899).Afredisknownas“thefatheroftheBritishnavy”ashefoundedastrongfleetwhichfirstbeattheDanesatsea,thenprotectedthecoastsandencouragedtrade;hetranslatedintoEnglishBede精选文档精选文档..精选文档.’sEcclesiasticalHistoryoftheEnglishPeopleandheencouragedlearninginothers,establishedschoolsandformulatedalegalsystem.TheNormanConquest(1066)WilliamtheConqueror,theDukeofNormandy,invadedandconqueredEnglandandtheAnglo-Saxonsin1066.Chapter3TheShapingoftheNation(1066-1381)NormanRule(1066-101381)ToconsolidatedhispowerUnderWilliam,thefeudalsysteminEnglandwascompletelyestablished.Accordingtothissystem,thekingownedallthelandpersonally.WilliamgavehisbaronslargeestatesinEnglandinreturnforapromiseofmilitaryserviceandaproportionoftheland’sproduce.OnepeculiarfeatureofthefeudalsystemofEnglandwasthatallthelandownerstooktheoath宣誓ofallegiance效忠forthelandtheyheld,notonlytotheirimmediatelord,butalsototheking,inotherwords,thisrestrained(resisted)thegrowthofthepowerofthebarons.WilliamreplacedWitan,thecounciloftheAnglo-Saxonkings,withtheGrandCouncilofhisnewtenants-in-chief.TheGrandCouncilmet3timesayearinthesoutherncitiesofWinchester.Williamsenthisclerkstocompile汇编apropertyrecordknownasDomesdayBook,completedin1086.TodayitiskeptinthePublicRecordsOfficeinLondon.HenryII’sReformsHenryIIwasthefirstkingoftheHouseofPlantagenet.Heabolishedtheannuallandtaxbasedonhides精选文档精选文档..精选文档.(hide_anAnglo-Saxonunitoflandvariouslycalculatedas24to48hectares).Hedividedthecountyintosixcircuitsandappointeditinerantjusticestoeachofthem.InHenry’stime,ajurywascomposedof12menandthejuror’sfunctionwastoactaswitnesses,nottohearevidencesandgiveverdict.Aspartsofhislegalreforms,HenryIIinsistedthatallclerkschargedwithcriminaloffencesshouldbetriedintheking’scourtsinsteadoftheBishop’scourts.HenryIIVSThomasBecketIn1154,ThomasBecketbecameHenry’sintimatefriend.In1162,BecketbecameArchbishop,andthenextyear,aclerkofBedfordwasacquittedonamurderchargeintheBishopofLincoln’scourt.Thekingdemandedthatthemanshouldcomeforwardtoanswerthechargeinacivilcourt,butBecketrefusedtoallowthis.Thisbroughtmatterstoacrisis.TheGreatCharterandtheBeginningofParliamentTheGreatCharter(1215)KingJohnwasdefeatedinawarwithFranceandlostNormandyin1204.InordertoavengehimselfonFrance,hedemandedmorefeudaltaxesandarmyservice.DissatisfiedwithJohn’sleadership,thelordsforcedhimtosigntheMagnaCarta,ortheGreatCharteronJune15,1215.TheMagnaCartacontained63clauses,themostimportantbeingthefollowing:1thekingcouldnotexact索取paymentfromthevassals诸侯withouttheirconsent;2nofreemanshouldbearrested,imprisoned,ordeprived剥夺oftheirpropertyunlesstheyareconvictedbyajury;精选文档精选文档..精选文档.3merchantswouldbeallowedtomoveaboutfreely;4thereshouldbethesameweightsandmeasuresthroughoutthecountry;5traditionalrightsandprivileges优惠待遇shouldbegiventothetowns;6ifthekingattemptedtofreehimselffromthelaw,thevassalshadtherighttoforcehimtoobeythelawbyeverymeanspossible,evenbymeansofacivilwar.ThespiritofMagnaCartawasthelimitationofthepowersoftheking,keepingthemwithinthebounds范围ofthefeudallawoftheland.ThesignificanceoftheMagnaCartaisregardedasthefoundationoftheBritishconstitutionalismanditprovidesthebasicprinciplesfortheprotectionoftheindividualrightsinbothBritainandtheUnitedStates.ThebeginningofParliamentHenryIIIwagedaseriesofwarsonFrance.Beingunabletomanagethesewithnormalrevenue财政收入,heexactedmoneyfromEnglishpeopleunderallpretexts借口inviolationofthespiritoftheMagnaCarta.Theoutragednobles,ledbySimondeMontfort,rebelled.Thus,itwasthroughtheeffortsofSimondeMontfortthatthemodernideaofarepresentativeparliamentemerged出现.Later,bythemid-14thcentury,theGreatCouncildevelopedlaterintotheHouseofCommonsandtheHouseofLordsasaparliament.HundredYears’WarwithFrance(1337-1453)TheHundredYears’Warwasaseriesofintermittent断断续续的warsbetweenFranceandEngland.Thecauseswereterritory,economy,securityandthethrone.Atfirst,thewarwentinEngland’sfavor.Astimewenton,theFrenchpeasants农民ralliedunder精选文档精选文档..精选文档.JoanofArcanationalheroine,defeatedtheEnglishanddrovethemoutofFrance.ThesignificanceoftheHundredYears’WarItpromotedtheconceptofEnglishnationalismandpromotedthedevelopmentofthetextileindustrybecauseitreducedtheexportofEnglishwool.Inaddition,thewarraisedthesocialpositionofthebourgeois中产阶级.AllthesefactorscontributedtothedeclineoffeudalisminEnglish.TheBlackDeath(1348-1349)TheBlackDeathspreadthroughEuropeinthesummerof1348withoutwarningand,mostimportantly,withoutanycure.TheconsequencesoftheBlackDeath1IthadreducedEngland’spopulationfrom4millionto2millionbytheendofthe14thcentury.2Asaresultoftheplague瘟疫,muchlandwasleftuntendedandtherewasaterribleshortageoflabor.AftertheBlackDeath,thelaboringandmerchantclassesgrewineconomicandsocialimportance,andalongwiththemEnglishincreasedinimportancecomparedtoFrench.ThePeasantUprising(1381)农民起义AlthoughthePeasantUprisingof1381wasbrutally残酷suppressed,ithadfar-reachingsignificanceinEnglishhistory,pavingthewayforthedevelopmentofcapitalism.Chapter4TransitiontotheModernAge(1455-1688)ThenameWarsoftheRoseswascoined创造bythegreat19thcenturynovelistSirWalterScott.精选文档精选文档..精选文档.TheWarsoftheRoses(1455-1485)wasaseriesofcivilwarsbetweentwogreatnoblefamilies:theHouseofYork,whosebadgewasawhiterose,andtheHouseofLancaster,whosebadgewasaredrose.Intheend,theHouseofLancasterwonandtheirleaderHenryTudorbecameKingHenryVII(1485-1509).TheTudorfamilyruled