格式要求4-外文文献翻译封面及内容要求

格式要求4-外文文献翻译封面及内容要求 毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译院系：商学系年级专业：08国际商务姓名：石华聪学号：0801022145附件：TheDevelopmentofTransportationandLogisticsinAsia:AnOverview指导老师评语：指导教师签名：年月日TheDevelopmentofTransportationandLogisticsinAsia:AnOverviewAbstractAsia'stradehassoaredoverthepasttwodecades.AnintegratedandglobaldirectdistributionbusinessmodelhasalreadybeendevelopedtoshipproductsdirectlyfromAsiatoWesternandothermarketsalongtheglobalsupplychain.Inspiteoftheirrichresources,Asiancountrieshavenotbeenabletoutilizetheirvastpotentialduetothelackofregionalconnectivityandtotheexistenceof"chokepoints"inAsiansupplychains.AnAsia-widetransportandlogisticsnetworkisessentialforAsiancountriestogettheirgoodstomarketsmoreeffectively,butitsoverallprogresshassofarbeenlimited.Aninnovativeapproachisneededtoaddressthephysicalinfrastructureaswellasthenonphysical,softinfrastructureissues.ThisarticleconcludeswithsolutionsidentifiedbyAsia-PacificEconomicCooperation(APEC).Thefocusofthisarticleisonselectedareaswithin.OverviewWiththefastpaceofglobalizationsincethe1980s,particularlytheoutsourcingofmanufacturingandservicesfromdevelopedWesterncountriestolow-costAsiandevelopingcountries,Asianeconomieshavebeengrowingrapidlyandhavebecometheworldfactoryoffinishedgoods.Asia'stradehassoaredoverthepasttwodecades,withthePeople'sRepublicofChina(PRC)inparticularrecordingexplosivegrowth.ThePRC'sexportsgrewatanaverageofmorethan18percentperyearbetween1990and2007,whiletheothereightemergingeconomiesamongAsia'stop-10exportersrecordedexportgrowthofmorethan10percentayear(BrooksandStone2010).Abusinessmodelthatisintegratedandglobal,usesdirectdistribution,andemphasizesshippinghigh-valueproductsfromAsianfactoriesdirectlytoworldwidemarketshasbeendevelopedbymultinationalfirms.Thisintegratedmodelreplacesthetraditionalmultiechelon,pushbasedintemationaldistributionmodel;italsohelpstoreduceredundantinventoriesalongtheglobalsupplychainandspeedsuptimetomarket(Su2007).Duetoallthesechanges,Asianowaccountsforaboutone-fourthofworldtradeandworldgrossdomesticproduct(GDP),respectively(WorldWithabout4.1billionpeoplein2009(PRB2009),Asiaisthemostpopulousregionintheworld,accountingfor60percentofpopulationandrepresentingenormousmarketopportunitiesformultinationalfirms.Therearearound20cross-regionalfreetradeagreements(FTAs)atdifferentstagesofimplementationthere.TheconsolidationofFTAsimproveseconomicwelfarecomparedtothecurrentbilateralism.AbroadPan-Asianagreement(coveringgoods,services,andtradecosts)involvingEastAsianandSouthAsianeconomiesisestimatedtooffersignificantimprovementtothegeneralwelfarethroughgainstoglobalincomeofaround$261billion(François,Rana,andWignaraja2009).AllEastandAsianandSouthAsianmembersofsuchanagreementwouldbenefitfromclosersubregionalcooperation.Fortrade-relatedinfrastructvire,thedominantmodeforfreighttransportbetweenEastAsiaandSouthAsiaremainsoceantransport.Thissituationisexpectedtocontinueintheforeseeablefuture.Theeffectivenessofoceantransportandothertrade-relatedinfrastructuretorespondtogrowingEastAsia-SouthAsiatradedependsonregionalabilitytomaintainhigh-qualityandefficientlogisticsservicesatacompetitivecost.Theneedforseatransporthasbeenamplified,especiallyfortime-sensitivegoods,duetoimprovementsintechnologyforcontainerizationandairfreight.AircargovolumehasgrownrapidlyandaircargoinvolvingAsiancountries,particularlywithinAsia,hasmuchhighergrowththanintheworldasawhole.EffectivelogisticsserviceandintermodalIntra-Asiaexportsofagriculturalandminingproductsareevenlowercomparedtotheirexportstotheworld(BhattacharyayandDe2009).ThenatureofAsia'stradeischangingandbecomingmoreefficientduetoitsrecentrapidgrowth.Higher-value,oftenlightergoodsandtradeserviceshavegraduallyreplacedbulkycommodities,resultingindecliningweight-to-valueratios.Inparticular,theinformationandcommunicationtechnology(ICT)revolutionhasgeneratedincreasedtradeinICTproductsandoutsourcedservices,andtheapplicationofinformationtechnologyinmanypublicandprivatesupplychaincollaborations,aswellasgreatermigrationofhighlyskilledprofessionalswithinandacrosstheregions(Hummels2009).Thischangehashadamajorimpactonthedistanceanddestinationoftradeflows,thelocationsandfragmentationofproductionprocesses,thechoiceoftransportmode,logisticsfacilitiesdecisions,theharmonizationandstandardizationofcustomsclassificationsandinspections,andthedemandforsupportinginfrastruct\ire.Pan-Asianconnectivityandotherfacilitationeffortswould,therefore,playimportantrolesinsustainingAsia'stradegrowth.Theconnecti\dtyforgoodsflowingwithinAsiaorbetweenAsiaandotherregionsmustbegraduallyenhancedtoensurereliable,better,andfastermovementofcargo.AsiaTransportandLogisticsDevelopmentRecentstudieshaveshownthatglobalizationhasresultedinincreasedinternationalexchangesofproductsandservices,andtheidentificationandestablishmentofAsia-widecross-bordertransportationnetworkconnectivityshouldnowbeamajorgoal(seeBrooks2008a,2008b;Hummels2009).AnothersetofstudiesinAsiashowthatcountrieswithgeographicalproximitycouldbenefitsubstantiallyfrommoretrade,providedinfrastructureandtradecostsareimproved(seeBrooks2008b;De2008a,2008b;BrooksandHummels2009).ThesestudiesaUcallforeffectiveandintegratedtransportandlogisticsnetworksforenhancingmovementofgoodsandservices;Asiahasbeennotoriousforfragmentedproductionandeconomicnetworksacrossborders.TheongoingglobalfinancialproblemsmakeitevenmorecriticalforAsiancountriestointegratetransportandlogisticsnetworkstofacilitatethegrowthofregionaldemands.Asianowfacesanewworldeconomythatisverydifferentfromtheonethatprevailedbeforethe1990s.Intoda/sworld,fallingcommunicationandtransportcosts—coupledwithtechnologicaldevelopment—havereshapedthecomparativeadvantagesofeconomies(Krugman1991,1993).However,thecurrentleadingpositionofAsiantrademaybereplacedifatruePan-Asianconnectivityofitslogisticsinfrastructuresisstillmissing.WhatAsianeedsnowistoreestablishamodern"SilkRoad."TheancienttraderoutethatstretchedfromAsiatoEuropewas,untuthe13thcentury,amongtheworld'smostimportantcross-borderarteries.AstradeisonceagaingrowingbetweenAsiaandtherestoftheworld,amodernSilkRoadmustbebuiltforsustainableeconomicdevelopmentinAsia(BhattacharyayandDe2009).EffortstodevelopanAsia-widetransportnetworkhavebeenattemptedsincethe1960s.However,littleprogresswasachieveduntilthe1980s(UNESCAP2006).Duringthe1980sandearly1990s,significantpoliticalandeconomicchangesinthisregionultimatelyfacilitatedthetradeandmobilityoffactorsofproductioninAsia.Subsequently,duringthe1990s,anincreaseinthedemandforphysicalconnectivitytosupportanexport-orientedgrowthstrategyandtosupportafragmentedproductionnetworkcontributedtosuccessfulimplementationofsometransportcorridorsintheGreaterMekongSubregionandelsewhereinAsia.Thisinfrastructuredevelopmentsuggeststheimportantroleofphysicalconnectivityinregionalcooperation.Nevertheless,theprogresstowardfullregionalconnectivityinAsiastilllagsfarbehindneed(BhattacharyayandDe2009).Manypolitical,economic,technical,andsocialfactorshavecontributedtotheslowprogressofatransportnetworkthroughoutAsia.TechnicalfactorsthathinderAsiantransportintegrationincludelackofeffectiveoverlandofficialtradeoutletsandassociatedfacilities(e.g.,India-BangladeshandPRC-LaoPeople'sDemocraticRepublic),lackofintegratedrailwaynetworks(e.g.,Myanmar-IndiaandPRC-Vietnam),lackoftransittrade(inthewholeofAsiawithsomeexceptions),lackoftradefacilitationmechanisms(softinfrastructure),andlackofpolicymeasures(especiallyintheinteriorpartofAsia)(BhattacharyayandDe2009).In1992,theUnitedNationsEconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaandthePacific(UNESCAP)initiatedtheAsianLandTransportInfrastructureDevelopment(ALTID)project,whichaimstoexpandtransportandcommunicationlinkageswithintheregionandwithotherregions.TheALTIDprojectconsistsoftheTrans-AsianRailway(TAR),theAsianHighway(AH),andthefacilitationoflandtransport.Intheinitialstagesofimplementation,theALTIDfocusedonformulatingtheTARandAHnetworksandestablishingrelatedstandardsandrequirements.TheTARandAHcouldbecomethemajorbuildingblocksfordevelopinganinternational,integrated,andintermodaltransportsysteminAsiaandbeyond(BhattacharyayandDe2009).TheappendixprovidesanexampleofhowtheprivatesectorhastakenactiontoupgradesurfacetransportationinthisIncreasingportefficiencyhasreducedtheaveragetimethatshipmentsspendinportsandatsea,leadingtomorefrequentshippingandtimelydelivery.Furthermore,traderouteswithhighdensitiesenableaneffectiveuseofhub-and-spokedesign,inwhichsmallcontainervesselsfeedshipmentsintoahub,wherecontainersareconsolidatedintolargerandfastercontainershipsforlongerhauls.Arecentstudyfoundthatgiventransportcostsaccountingforabouta20percentadvaloremtaxequivalentonimportpricesinEastAsia,anincreaseinportcapacityby10percentleadstoadecreaseinacross-the-boardtariffsby0.3to0.5percent(AbeandWilson2009).Inaddition,JohnWilson,CatherineMann,andTsunehiroOtsuki(2003)findthattradeamongtheAsia-PacificEconomicCooperation(APEC)forummemberscouldexpandbyUS$254billion,or21percent,ifeachAPECmemberthatisbelowaverageinregulatoryandcustomsbarriers,portefficiency,andelectronicbusinessusageenhanceditscapacityjusthalfwaytotheAPECaverage(BrooksandStone2010).AircargoinAsiahasbenefitedsubstantiallyfromgrowthintrade.Asmentionedearlier,theweight-to-valueratiosoftradehavebeendeclininginthepastdecades(Hummels2009).ThisshowsthatexportsinAsiaareshiftingfrombulkshipmentstowardlighterandhigher-valuegoods,implyinganincreasingdemandforairshipping.AircargoinvolvingAsiahasbeenleadingthegrowthofworldaircargointhepasttwodecades(ibid.).TheinternationalaircargoesofEurope-Asia,NorthAmerica-Asia,andintra-Asiagrewfasterthantheworldaverageby1.6percentagepoints,3.4percentagepoints,and6.9percentagepoints,respectively(Hummels2006).Thetrendinaircargoisconsistentwiththatintradegrowth.SeveralfactorshaveaffectedtheaircargogrowthtrendinvolvingAsiainthepasttwodecades.ForthemarketbetweenNorthAmericaandAsia,fourelements—economicactivity,currencyexchangerate,infrastructureimprovement,andliberalizationofairtransportagreements—determinetheaircargovolumebetweenthesetworegions(Boeing2010).Fortheintra-Asiaaircargomarket,theglobalproductionchaininAsiaisgettingmatureandprovidesasustainablesourceofgrowth.BecausemostcountriesinAsiaareseparatedbyocean,aircargoisessentialtoregionaldevelopment.UnlikeU.S.carriers,whichprefernarrow-bodyaircraft,Asiancarrierspreferwide-bodypassengeraircraft.Wide-bodypassengeraircraftprovideshugecapacity,equivalentto50weeklymediumwide-bodyfreightersinthetop-10pairingsofAsiancountriesthatconductcargotraffic(Boeing2010),offeringsufficientcapacitytosupportaircargogrowth.TheemergingroleofthegreaterChinaregionhaschallengedJapan'srolewithinAsia.Inthetop-10countrypairs(seetable3),thegreaterChinaregion—includingthePRC,HongKong,andTaiwan—isinvolvedin7outof10pairs,whereasJapanisinonly5.ItisexpectedthattheregionalintegrationamongGreaterChinaandtheAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)willcontinueboostingtheaircargogrowthwithinthisregion.Theimportanceofahigh-qualitylogisticsinfrastructurevariesbycommodity,dependingonthreefactors(Arnold2009).First,therearetheimporters'schedulingrequirements.Timelinessisparticularlyimportanttojust-in-timesupplychainsinsectorssuchasfashionclothingorhigh-techproducts,andtoretailerswithcoordinatednationalsalesprograms.Thesecondfactoristheshelflifeofthecommodity,reflectingvolatilityofdemandorphysicaldeterioration.Thirdisthevalueofthecommoditypershipmentunit,forexample,twenty-footequivalentunit(TEU)orpermetricton.Theneedsoflogisticsandsupplychainservicesrelatedtohighervalue-addedproductsaregrowingatafastpace.Giyenitsdiversity,Asiantrade,particularlyAsiatradesupplychains,isaffectedbyeachofthesefactors.Softinfrastructuremaycontributemorethanphysicalinfrastructuredoestoincreasedtradeanditsprofitability.Bureaucracy,inefficientinstitutionalstructures,andpolicymayresultinreducedmarginsfrominternationaltrade.Erom2006to2007,mostdevelopingAsiancountrieswereactivelyimplementingreformsoftheirtradepolicies.Erom2007to2008,ThailandandthePhilippineswereprominentreformers;during2008and2009VietnamandthePRCwere.In2010,71percentofEastAsianeconomiesreportedatleastonesignificanttradefacilitationreform(BrooksandStone2010).Onaverage,manufacturersinAsiarequire11daystoexporttotheirOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)counterparts,whichissignificantlyshorterthantheapproximately23daysrequiredtoexporttonon-OECDcoimtries(table4)(BrooksandStone2010).Logisticsservices,whichconnectsupplychainsacrosstheregionanddeterminethelocationofforeigndirectinvestmentwithintheregion,areavitalcomponentofAsia'sglobalcompetitiveness.Improvedefficiencyininfrastructureservicefacilitatestradeandleadstohugecostsavings,equivalenttorelocatingproductionthousandsofkilometersclosertotradingpartners.EconomiessuchasthoseofthePRC,HongKong,Taiwan,Korea,Singapore,Malaysia,andThailandhavecurrentlybuiltwell-developedlogisticssystemstofacilitateinternationaltrade.ThecomparisonoflogisticsperformanceinternationallyshowsthatEastAsiaperformsrelativelywellcomparedtootherdevelopingregions,suchasSouthAsia,butstilllagswellbehinddevelopedcountries(Arvisetal.2007;BrooksandStone2010).OpeningupAsia'stradepotentialisverychallenging.CostsforhavinginterruptedroadorrailwayconnectivityacrosstheregionorforlackoffacilitationofbordertradecanoffsetgainsachievedfromtradepreferencesasproposedunderseveralFTAsandotherarrangements.Therefore,theneedforanenvironmenttobetterenabletradethatofferslowertradecostshasgainedmomentuminAsia.However,afavorableregionalclimatetoestablishamodern-daySilkRoadislacking.Hence,theagendaofAsianregionalcooperationhastogobeyond"policy"barriersbyincluding"nonpolicy"barriers.Forexample,inordertofacilitateseamlessconnectivityinAsiaandacceleratethemovementofgoodsandservicesinAsiaandbeyond,Asiancountrieshavetointegratethedifferentsubregionaltransportcorridorsandmodes(roads,rails,maritime,andairshipping).Moreover,theyhavetoremoveinstitutionalbottlenecksandbarriersthatareraisingcostsandloweringregionalFutureDevelopmentAsiahaspresenteditselfinthepastthreedecadesasaregionoffast-growingeconomies,particularlyamongthosewithemergingmarkets.However,weakregionalconnectivityhasbecomeoneofthemajorbarriersconstrainingthefullpotentialofregionaleconomicintegrationandgrowth.AtrueregionalcollaborationamongAsiancountriesisveryimportantforestablishingAsia-wideeconomicintegrationandsupplychainconnectivity.InordertobuildahighlyintegratedAsia,aninnovativeandcomprehensiveapproachisneededtoaddressthephysicalinfrastructureissuesandnonphysicalsoftinfrastructureissues.Whereastheformerincludestheairports,seaports,dryports,roads,rail,inlandwaterways,maritimetransport,andinformationandcommunicationnetworks,thelattercoverscross-bordertransitfacilitationmeasures,customsclearance,andotherfacilitatingpoliciesandregulations.AddressingtheissuesaboverequirescollaborativeeffortsamongAsiancountries,bilateraldonoragencies,multilateraldevelopmentbanks,UNagencies,intergovernmentalorganizations,professionalassociations,andtheprivatesector.AboveaU,highlevelcommitmentsandpolicydirecti